Folio from a ‘Shahnama’ (‘Book of Kings’) by Firdawsi (d. 1020); Anushirvan bestowing largess upon his minister Buzurjmihr” / Credit: National Museum of Asian Art, Smithsonian Institution, Freer Collection, Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1942.2 (detail)

The Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art has announced “An Epic of Kings: The Great Mongol Shahnama,” an exhibition on the first imperial copy of Iran’s national epic, Firdawsi’s “Book of Kings.” It will open at the museum Sept. 21 and remain on view until Jan. 12, 2025. The manuscript, completed sometime between 1330 and 1336 in Tabriz, the capital of the Ilkhanids, the Mongol rulers of Iran (1256–1353), is a masterpiece as much for its impressive scale (60 x 40 centimeters [about 24 x 16 inches]) as for its exceptional paintings. It exemplifies the remarkable artistic originality that flourished under Ilkhanid rule, a period traditionally associated with upheaval and destruction rather than creativity.

For the first time ever, the exhibition assembles 24 folios from the manuscript, focusing on the series of illustrated folios depicting Iran’s historical rulers—beginning with Alexander the Great. “An Epic of Kings” not only includes works from Yuan and Ming China, but also from the medieval Mediterranean world and the Latin West; this highlights the cosmopolitan nature of the Ilkhanid empire and the development of a particular and rich pictorial language as the dynasty strengthened its position at the crossroads of the East and West.

With more than 60 objects on display, “An Epic of Kings” includes works from the museum’s own holdings alongside loaned works from the Cleveland Art Museum, the Harvard Art Museums, the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Keir Collection—currently on loan to the Dallas Museum of Art—and several prominent private collections. The National Museum of Asian Art holds one of America’s preeminent collections of the arts of the Islamic world, with particular strengths in illustrated manuscripts and ceramics among the more than 2,200 objects.

“In our second century, the National Museum of Asian Art is committed to engaging in dynamic collaborations beyond our four walls and to telling compelling stories about object histories,” said Chase F. Robinson, the museum’s director. “‘An Epic of Kings’ would not be possible without the generosity of these institutions that lent us exceptional works of art including some folios from this manuscript, enabling us to offer a rare chance to view many pages from a medieval Persian masterpiece and to invite visitors to learn more about the complexities of its creation in the 14th century.”

“‘The Great Mongol Shahnama’ truly represents a watershed in the history of Persian painting,” said Simon Rettig, the National Museum of Asian Art’s associate curator for the arts of the Islamic world. “There is nothing like it before and after, and the folios on view in the exhibition show how unique and grand a manuscript it was.”

In preparation for the exhibition, the department of conservation and scientific research collaborated with the curatorial department to analyze the museum’s “Great Mongol Shahnama” paintings. A short video on pigment analysis and X-ray investigation of the works will be displayed in the exhibition to show some of the preliminary results. An extensive e-publication discussing some of the major results of this research is scheduled for release in spring 2025.

The National Museum of Asian Art’s Department of Conservation and Scientific Research repaired many delicate, ancient works for this exhibition. Part of the process is documented in a viral video that showcases a technique called a “fill,” when paper or other material is used to fill in a missing part to prevent further damage.

'Zahhak enthroned'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, ca. 1330. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper, Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1923.5.

Early in the Shahnama, the Arab prince Zahhak kills his father, usurps the throne, invades Iran, and reigns for over a thousand years. Here, the evil king sits on the throne in a crowded audience hall, where a feeling of dread is palpable. But what a cosmopolitan vibe! The variety of fabrics used for the hangings, costumes, turbans, Mongol headgear, Anatolian carpets, and Chinese furniture all testify to the richness of the land Zahhak has just captured and, by extension, the sophistication of the Ilkhanid court.

'Faridun collapses on seeing Iraj’s coffin'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, ca. 1330. Ink, cokor and gold on paper, Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler S1986.101.

Mythical king Faridun, who dethroned the tyrant Zahhak, prepares to welcome his son Iraj home from a voyage when instead he sees his son’s casket amid a procession. He learns that Iraj’s two brothers have murdered him out of jealousy. Seeing the coffin, the king falls from his horse, his crown on the floor. The pallor of the faces, the mournful expressions, and the somber hues emphasize the tragedy of the scene. The subject of this episode recalls a similar event in the life of Hülegü, the founder of the Ilkhanid dynasty, when he heard about his son Jumaqur’s death while riding to see him.

'Faridun mourns Iraj'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, ca. 1330. Ink, cokor and gold on paper, Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler S1986.100.

Faridun takes Iraj’s head to his son’s palace and sits in the garden of the pavilion, which he orders burned down and destroyed because it reminds him too much of his beloved departed child. The destruction occurs in the foreground as the seated father bows in mourning over Iraj’s severed head, which rests on his lap. The tragic episode may relate to Ilkhanid Sultan Uljaytu (reigned 1304–17), the father of Great Mongol Shahnama patron Abu Sa‘id, who lost five of his six sons when they were young.

'Sindukht reproves Rudaba'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, ca. 1330. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper, Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S1986.102a–d.

During the reign of Manuchehr, Iraj’s grandson, Rudaba, the daughter of the king of Kabul, falls in love with Zal, a great warrior and Iran’s champion. She uses her maid as a messenger to her beloved. When her mother, Sindukht, uncovers the secret liaison by intercepting the servant, who is kneeling in front of her in this painting, Rudaba must explain the situation. In the Ilkhanid period, elite women were politically and socially powerful and often sought opportunities to manipulate politics. They strived to place their son on the throne or their daughter as a royal wife.

'Shah Zav enthroned'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. Arthur M. Sackler Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S1986.107.

Zav, the son of Tahmasp and a distant descendant of King Faridun, accedes to the throne of Iran at an advanced age and only reigns for five years before he dies. Here, the painting features all the pageantry of a coronation, and Zav is depicted crowned atop the throne, holding a wine cup. Scholars have suggested an association with Sultan Gaykhatu (reigned 1292–95), who only reigned a few years and who was a notorious wine drinker, which explains the presence of the cup bearer in the foreground. This is the only time a cup bearer appears in a painting from the Great Mongol Shahnama.

'Darab sleeping in the vault'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art Collection.Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1930.78.

Episodes about legitimacy and royal authority were favored subjects for illustrations in the Great Mongol Shahnama. The infant prince Darab is cast away on an ark by his mother, Humay, who plans to seize power after the death of her husband, Bahman. Rescued by a launderer, Darab is raised unaware of his royal ancestry. Much later, while fighting a battle, Darab takes refuge in a vault. As Humay’s general, Rashnavad, passes nearby, a voice tells him the sleeping youth inside the vault is the rightful king of Iran.

'Taynush before Iskandar and the visit to the Brahmans'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold on paper. Arthur M. Sackler Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S1986.105.1.

The Shahnama exalts Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) under his Persian identity of Iskandar. For the Iranians and the Ilkhanids, he is known as the World Conqueror. More than any other monarch, Iskandar personifies the warrior king, the skillful peacemaker, and the formidable judge.

In this folio, after fighting and killing King Fur in India, Iskandar visits Mecca en route to Andalusia. There, he meets Taynush, Fur’s son-in-law, who eventually submits to him. Afterward, Iskandar returns to India to consult with the Brahmans on the meaning of life. The wise men caution him about the dangers of greed in his attempt to conquer the world.

'Iskandar building the wall against the peoples of Gog and Magog'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold on paper. Arthur M. Sackler Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler S1986.104.

Before his encounter with the talking tree, Iskandar gathers craftsmen from around the world to erect two gigantic walls made of iron, copper, and sulfur to protect the desperate local population from the beastly peoples of Gog and Magog. The artist focuses on the active construction of the wall, depicting blacksmiths and masons laboring as Iskandar oversees the work’s progress. Despite their association with destruction, the Mongols were also formidable patrons of architectural projects, which included massive religious buildings and military constructions throughout their dominion.

'Iskandar and the talking tree'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1935.23.

At the edge of the world, Iskandar comes upon a wondrous tree with two trunks, one male, which speaks in the daytime, and the other female, which speaks at night. While Iskandar is waiting to hear both, the female part warns him of his imminent death, despite his immeasurable power and wealth. To create the scene’s eeriness, the artist included fantastic elements, such as fungus-like rocks inspired by Chinese models. This scene may have resonated with the Ilkhanids, as some of them still maintained their shamanistic traditions and practices, including visits to sacred trees.

'The bier of Iskandar'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1938.3.

According to Firdawsi, Iskandar is buried on the open plain near Alexandria in Egypt. In the Great Mongol Shahnama, his bier is depicted in an elaborately furnished indoor setting. As Aristotle leans over the coffin of his disciple, Iskandar’s mother has thrown herself on her son’s casket in a poignant gesture of sorrow. Standing in a semicircle, mourners weep, and women in the foreground pull their hair in anguish. The sumptuous interior may have been inspired by contemporary Ilkhanid architecture and especially by the monumental tombs of Muslim rulers, such as Uljaytu’s tomb in Sultaniyya, a city 250 miles west of Tehran.

'Ardavan captured by Ardashir'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold on paper. Arthur M. Sackler Collection. Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S1986.103.

In a struggle for the Persian throne, young Ardashir must fight the last Parthian monarch, Ardavan (reigned 213–224). After forty days of battle, Ardavan is defeated and taken prisoner in front of Ardashir, who sentences him to death. The dramatic painting captures the very moment when Ardashir, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, looks down at the defeated old Ardavan, whom farr has abandoned. Legitimacy and the affirmation of royal authority were essential for the Great Mongol Shahnama’s patron, Abu Sa‘id, who had to fight constantly to keep his throne.

'Ardashir and his wife'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold on paper Freer Collection. Arthur M. Sackler Collection.Purchase—Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S1986.106.

After executing Ardavan, the previous king, Ardashir marries the deceased ruler’s daughter. Seeking revenge for their father’s death, her brother Bahman provides her with poison. She presents it in a cup to Ardashir in the palace’s courtyard, but her hand shakes so much the cup falls and breaks on the floor. Suspicious, the king asks for four hens, all of which immediately die after ingesting the cup’s contents. This seldomly illustrated episode may have echoed a contemporaneous event during which Baghdad Khatun (died 1335), the wife of Abu Sa‘id, allegedly attempted to murder him.

'Bahram Gur discovers Jamshid’s treasure'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, ca. 1330. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1935.24.

The ruler Bahram Gur is told of a mysterious cave that emits howls. In fact, the site houses the treasure of Jamshid, the mythical king known for his justice and tolerance. The painting faithfully depicts the treasure as described by Firdawsi, with gold and bejeweled statues of buffaloes, lions, wild asses, pheasants, and peacocks. Instead of keeping it for himself, Bahram Gur distributes the treasure in its entirety among the poor, an act of generosity and charity that inspired the Mongol sultans to treat their subjects well.

'Anushirvan bestowing largess upon Buzurjmihr'. Folio from the Great Mongol Shahnama, Iran, probably Tabriz, Ilkhanid dynasty, ca. 1330. Ink, color, and gold, on paper. Freer Gallery of Art Collection. Purchase—Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1942.2.

Holding the mandil, the handkerchief of the wellborn, Anushirvan wears an elaborate crown and has his hair pulled back. His portrayal recalls Sasanian models, such as those on silver plates, including the so-called Shapur plate in the museum’s collections. Royal majesty is associated with a subject’s loyalty, represented here by Anushirvan’s vizier, Buzurjmihr, who receives bags of money, demonstrating that exceptional competence is rewarded by the king’s generosity. The painting may relate to the Ilkhanid ruler Uljaytu and his vizier, Taj al-Din ‘Ali-Shah (died 1324), whom his successor and patron of the Great Mongol Shahnama, Abu Sa‘id, also appreciated.