Lot 3697. Property of a Gentleman Collection. An exceptional and massive zitan 'dragon' compound cabinet, Qing dynasty, Kangxi period (1662-1722); Red sandalwood double-top box with cloud and dragon pattern made by Emperor Kangxi of Qing Dynasty; overall 210 by 56 by h. 372 cm. Lot Sold 54,595,000 HKD (Estimate Upon Request). © Sotheby's 2023

of rectangular form, the main constructed with four  zitan  panels forming the front doors, each of the two narrower outer panels superbly carved with two dragons writhing sinuously in pursuit of a flaming pearl amidst  ruyi -shaped cloud scrolls and above tumultuous waves, one panel further carved with an iris spray above an umbrella and victory banner, the other with a peony spray above an endless knot and a carp, flanking the two central and broader panels, each exceptionally and deeply carved with a ferocious en face dragon soaring above a  '  flaming pearl' and a further writhing dragon, against a ground densely carved with clusters of  ruyi -shaped cloud scrolls and above tempestuous crashing waves, further decorated with a beribboned vase and flowering lotus blossoms, all above a horizontal panel densely carved with  ruyi -shaped cloud scrolls, the edges of the exterior and central panels fitted with gilt-bronze hinges decorated with cloud motifs, the edges of the central panels with further gilt-bronze plates and door pulls decorated in low relief with bats and chimes, the top cabinets similarly carved in meticulous detail with the dragon motif.

Provenance:
Top left cabinet: Collection of Serge Sandberg (1879-1981), acquired before 1942 according to the collector's correspondence, and then in the family by descent.
Sotheby's Paris, 12th June 2018, lot 144.

Top right cabinet: A French private collection.
Christie's Paris, 12th June 2019, lot 76.

Main cabinet: A French private collection.
Sotheby's Paris, 15th December 2011, lot 35.

Top box (picture left): Collected by Serge Sandberg (1879-1981). According to the collector’s letters, he purchased it before 1942 and has been passed down to the family since then.
Sotheby's Paris, 12 June 2018, lot 144.

Top box (picture right): French private collection
Christie's Paris, 12 June 2019, lot 76.

Main cabinet: French private collection
Sotheby's Paris, 15 December 2011, lot 35.

Quest for Balance and Harmony:
An Early Qing Dynasty Imperial Zitan 'Dragon' Compound Cabinet
Dr Hajni Elias

Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911) furnishings represent utilitarian artefacts that were made to appeal to the senses through display as well as being functional in their use. They were the  zhangwu 长物or luxuries of their time that advertised the status of the owner as well as providing an opportunity to articulate a worldview constructed around this status. ^[1]  Referred to by art historians as the 'politics of taste', from the late 17th century onwards, we see an unprecedented demand for  zhangwu  items that stimulated originality in design and the creation of decorative effects that exploited artisans' ingenuity and craftsmanship to the full. In a courtly setting, the function and meaning of  zhangwu  objects was closely linked to the aesthetic taste and needs of their commissioner - the emperor. Imperial taste introduced a new vocabulary to interior design that was practical yet opulent. Designs had the attributes of successful functional considerations that met well with Imperial court, office, residence and leisure purposes; they were also conceptual achievements that embodied the emperor's ambition to rule all under Heaven. [2 ^]

The present z itan  wood compound cabinet, with its impressive carving of the 'dragons chasing flaming pearls' motif illustrates the procurement of the exquisite on Imperial command. The different components that complete this magnificent (over three metres high and two metres wide) piece of furniture had been separated but are now happily re-united in their original form. Furnishings of this type, in particular those that employed images of the dragon, were conceived to elevate Imperial presence and power. Such a tour de force object could only  be  designed and crafted by skilled artisans employed by the  Muzuo  Wood Workshop, one of the Palace Workshops ( Zaobanchu  Manufacturing Office)  that operated under the command of the Imperial Household Department ( Neiwufu  Internal Affairs Bureau) of the Qing court.   

The cabinet with its pictorial composition of eight pairs of sinuous dragons, each pair chasing a flaming pearl amongst auspicious  ruyi  form clouds above turbulent waves interspersed with  bajixiang  eight auspicious symbols and floral sprays, may appear familiar from a number of examples from the 18th century . A well known Imperial piece is a  zitan  cabinet of different structure but also decorated with the theme of dragons chasing flaming pearls among clouds, pictured  in situ  in the bedroom behind the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxin Dian Yangxin Palace) and illustrated in  The Complete Collection of Treasures of the Palace Museum. Furniture of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (II) , Hong Kong, 2002, pl. 249  (Fig. 1: Zitan  cabinet decorated with dragon and cloud motif located in the bedroom behind the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxin Dian 阳心堂). Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Place Museum, Beijing) . The cabinet was built to fit the hall which became the main residence of the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722 - 1735) and was used by his successors subsequently. While the Yangxin Dian cabinet is also the product of the Wood Workshop, there is noticeable stylistic variation in the depiction of the dragons and in the emphasis of the compositions that reflect the evolving artistic styles and preferences of their respective periods. The present compound cabinet likely predates the Yangxin Dian example, as well as other known Imperial  zitan  wood furniture with the dragon design, such as the throne dated to the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r . 1736 -1795) sold in these rooms, 8th October 2009, lot 1645  (Fig. 2) . In fact, it may be suggested that we are looking at an important artistic endeavour that served as a blue-print for subsequent  zitan  wood furnishings . The dragon decoration displays stylistic and aesthetic elements attributable to the influence of the 17th century master designer Liu Yuan Liu Yuan ( c . 1641-  c . 1691), whose compositions of this mythological beast are well known from a number of artefacts which will be examined below.

Fig. 2. Zitan  throne decorated with dragon and cloud motif. Qianlong period (r. 1736 - 1795), Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911). Private Collection.

Following a brief introduction of the historical context and cultural climate that set the stage for the production of Imperial furnishing in the early Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911), we shall look at Liu Yuan's influence and legacy on dragon designs, in particular highlighting the symbolism associated with the 'dragon chasing the flaming pearl' motif, the use of  zitan  wood for their production and its craftsmanship, and the cabinet's significance in its courtly environment and setting. 

Historical Context and Liu Yuan

As noted by the art historian Jonathan Hay, decoration was a conspicuous reminder of the emperor's power over his subjects' labor and talents. It was under Kangxi's reign (r. 1661- 1722) that a distinctive Qing Imperial approach to art and decoration was created , based on the Ming dynasty (1368 -1644) model but with a new Manchu approach to taste and sensibility. ^[3]  The production of wares in the Imperial Palace Workshop, located within the confines of the Forbidden City, was a Qing innovation in the creation, control and execution of artefacts made to a specific taste. In this setting, we see the emergence of teams of supervisor-designers or 'taste makers' who ensured that artisans employed by the Qing court from various parts the Empire, in particular Those from the furniture and jade workshops located in the southern cities of Guangdong and Suzhou, strictly adhered to Imperial instructions and orders. 

Liu Yuan was one of those master artisans whose influence on the design and creation of Kangxi period artefacts cannot be underestimated. From his biography in the Qingshigao, the  official  history of the Qing dynasty, we know that he was born into a Hanjun 汉jun bannerman family from the Bordered Red Banner domicile in Xiangfu, Henan province. ^[4]  He was a versatile artist, an accomplished painter and calligrapher, a designer of Imperial porcelain wares, a maker of ink cakes and Imperial seals, and an inspired carver of ink-stones, wood and lacquerware. Dorothy Ko describes him as a key figure in the development of an evolving and eclectic Qing Imperial style that embodied the materialist mandate and personal taste of the Kangxi Emperor and the skills of the craftsmen in his service. ^[5] 

Liu started his career as an artisan in Suzhou where much of the late Ming and early Qing specialized workshops with their master craftsmen were concentrated. He subsequently enrolled as a student at the National University in Beijing, and after passing his examination took on various bureaucratic posts in Guangxi and Anhui provinces. Around 1679, when he was dismissed from his position as a tax commissioner at the Wushu Customs Office in Anhui, he was called back to Beijing to serve in the Inner Court under the personal service of the Kangxi Emperor. ^{[ 6]}  Throughout his career Liu presented several hundred porcelain designs that incorporated his own innovative ideas. It is said that his output surpassed the wares of the former Ming dynasty. [7] Peter Lam notes ^how  Liu must have started designing for the Imperial kilns at Jingdezhen from around 1680 when four supervisors were sent from the court to oversee a large-scale porcelain production that would last until 1688. ^[8]  By then, Liu's position as a master designer was well established with wares traditionally attributed to Zang Yingxuan Zang Yingxuan, sent to Jingdezhen in 1681 as one of the supervisors, in fact conceived by Liu himself. ^[9]      

One of Liu's major contributions to early Qing design is the dragon motif. A blue and white Kangxi vase in the collection of the Palace Museum, painted with two anthropomorphic dragons skillfully placed within the contours of the vase as if they inhabit the entire object rather than just its surface, is a quintessential Liu design  (Fig. 3: Blue and white vase with dragon motif. Kangxi mark and period (1622 - 1722), Jingdezhen porcelain. Palace Museum, Beijing) . Liu derived his inspiration from Chen Rong's Nine Dragon  scroll painting (1244), but made the beast more playful and contemporary to suit Qing  Imperial taste. While there has been no systematic attempt to identify all of Liu's dragon pieces, the linear S-form shape of the two creatures on the vase is consistent with those found on Liu's woodblock illustrations. [10 ^]

With its ability to move freely through air and water, dragons symbolized protection and power, and in the Imperial context they embodied the authority of the Son of Heaven. In art, front facing dragons became the image of Imperial authority from the Ming dynasty onwards, while dragons depicted cavorting amongst clouds playfully chasing a round luminescent flaming pearl has an even earlier history. The image of the pearl, representing a celestial luminary which the dragon is trying to catch and tame, already appears in the Tang dynasty (618 - 907) . The earliest known example of two confronting dragons with a flaming pearl between them was found on the pommel of a sword dated to 600 CE excavated from an Imperial tomb at Luoyang, Henan province. Archaeologists believe that the sword was probably fashioned by Chinese craftsmen but Its ring-pommel and scabbard mounts derived directly from swords developed by Steppe tribes from the Scythian region in Central Asia. ^[11] 

As mentioned earlier, Liu was a talented craftsman and designer and amongst his carvings, possibly the most famous and significant artefact for the purposes of our discussion here is the Duan Luminous  Dragons  ( Longguang 龙光)  ink-stone that bears his signature and the date of 1679, when Liu presented the stone as a personal tribute to the Kangxi Emperor  (Fig. 4) . The two beasts on the stone, representing an elder and a younger dragon, are fluid, form-shifting creatures, with a theatrical playful sense of presence and motion. Liu's dragons convey power and strength in a most natural fashion, quite the opposite from the majestic but somewhat formulaic dragons associated with later, in particular Qianlong period examples, as seen on the zitan throne mentioned earlier or on a red  lacquer  screen included in the Royal Academy of Arts exhibition and illustrated in Evelyn Rawski and Jessica Rawson eds.,  China: The Three Emperors  1662-1795 , London, pl. 17  (Fig. 5: Zitan  wood and red lacquer screen with the dragon and cloud motif. Qianlong period (r. 1736 - 1795), Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911). Palace Museum, Beijing) . Qianlong dragons appear imposing with a heightened sense of opulence . They are positioned against an almost excessively sumptuous background of rich complexity and visual impact but have developed in form from the more energetic and fluid shape of the earlier Qing examples.     

Fig. 4. Liu Yuan (c. 1641- c. 1691),  Luminous Dragons  ink-stone, 1679. Palace Museum, Beijing. 

The two dragons on the  Luminous Dragons  ink-stone are captured in the midst of chasing three gold nuggets. They are muscular creatures with horns hovering over thick flying manes, their bodies covered in overlapping scales that appear to slither in rhythm with the twists and turns of the tails. A strong sense of motion in the composition is created by the S-shaped curvature of the beasts' bodies that glide across swirling clouds and crashing waves. Dynamism is also generated by the carving technique that brings the dragons from the core of the stone to the surface instead of just making it appear on the object. ^[12]  This is not dissimilar to what we see on the Kangxi vase mentioned above where the flat surface is skilfully transformed into a three-dimensional space thanks to Liu's inspired design . When considering the dragons on the present cabinet they are likewise dominated by muscular facial features with prominent square-form jaws depicted en-face or in three-quarter profile. The treatment of the heads and bodies, as the dragons swirl in and out of the clouds and waters, display remarkable expertise applied to the  zitan  wood, bringing the composition to life and conveying a sense of three dimensional space on the two dimensional surface of the cabinet.

Another example of Liu's dragon may be seen on an ink-cake titled  Virtuous Power of Dragon  ( Longde 龙德) in the collection of the Palace Museum in Beijing  (Fig. 6: Liu Yuan (c. 1641- c. 1691),  Virtuous Power of Dragon  ink-cake. Palace Museum, Beijing) . The ink-cake is decorated with a large gilded dragon, its head and claws occupying the upper half of the cake with its sinuous body climbing over the sides and the back, and a smaller gilded dragon frolicking in the lower half. Between the two creatures are a representation of a gilded half-pearl and an actual pearl encrusted in the body of the cake. ^[13]  This is another impressive piece of three-dimensional carving with Liu's dragons making a strong and lively statement.

As we can see, the dragons on the present cabinet display characteristics associated with Liu's works. They are expertly carved swirling in and out of the clouds in continuous movement with an acute sense of spirit and power. In their forms, style and workmanship they convey a naturalism that adheres to more traditional and classical representations of dragons in Chinese art. Whether we are looking at an elder or a younger beast, a ferocious front-facing soaring or a writhing one, they are all depicted with a sense of spirited freedom and fluidity not dissimilar to what we see in Liu's compositions. There are sixteen dragons in total on the cabinet, an auspicious number associated with harmony and perfect balance between Heaven and Earth. While dragons stand for the emperor with the pearl symbolizing wisdom and truth, the overall message conveyed in the act of the beast chasing the pearl embodies the pursuit of knowledge and higher understanding in a perfectly balanced universe. This message would have resonated with the Kangxi Emperor who himself was an avid pursuer of knowledge and learning. Apart from being a man of letters, he had deep interest in the sciences and how the universe worked. ^[14]  Universal or cosmic balance was not merely of ritual importance to him but was a matter of the principles of perfection. The titles  Longguang  and  Longde ,  given to the ink-stone and ink-cake respectively by Liu, reference the qualities of  guang  guang and  de 德, two key concepts of moral conducts pursued by Kangxi throughout his rulership.  Guang  is associated with brightness or illumination and symbolises essential guiding qualities of virtue, wisdom and moral integrity.  De  is the quintessential concept of virtue and moral character. The two together embody the importance of moral conduct and righteousness that brings balance and harmony to one's rule. The association of the dragons on the cabinet itself with these moral precepts would have been apparent to the makers and viewers of the piece and, of course, the Kangxi Emperor himself.

Material  and Craftsmanship

The cabinet is made in the rare and hence most prized z itan  wood,  available only to the master craftsmen employed in the Palace Workshop. Historically, z itan  was primarily grown in southern India and southeast Asia, with a very small quantity known from the southern provinces of present-day Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiangxi in China. Zhou Mo, in his research on the variety of  zitan  used for Chinese furniture suggests that two types were used at the Qing court, one known as the 'small leaf  zitan'   ( pterocarpus santalinus ) which has a light floral fragrance and ages to a deep reddish-purple or purple-black tone and grows to a smaller size, and its relative, the 'large leaf zitan ' ( dalbergia luovelii ), which is a  larger tree with lesser fragrance, but ages to a similar purple-black tone. ^[15]  Both types were appreciated for their jade-like silky texture, fine and dense grain, and their deep lustre, making them the favored timber of the Qing court with no expense spared in acquiring it. From Imperial records we know that during Qianlong's reign in particular, the Palace Workshop used over 290,000 kgs of z itan , most of which had to be imported from overseas due to its almost complete extinction in China. The wood's long growth period , limited availability and high demand primarily from the Imperial court, led to its excessive felling and eventual disappearance by the early 18th century. 

Furniture production in the Wood Workshop strictly adhered to the emperor's taste, with a preference for large and weighty pieces, all of which conveyed authority while, at the same time, being a showcase for the high standards of workmanship achieved at court. By and large , Qing imperial furniture became increasingly grander than its predecessors, with more complex and detailed decoration. It is worth noting that different wood types were rarely mixed and there was a tendency to leave it unpainted to enhance the natural beauty of the material. Decoration was carefully considered, and as noted by Zhang Xiaoming, imperial works used various carving techniques, with often more than four-fifths of the surface of each piece carved with exquisite detail. [16] ^Pieces  were made primarily with the use of the mortise-and- tenon technique, which joins various components together without any fasteners or glue. Different pieces were cut out and made to interlock with a perfect fit, and allowed to naturally expand and contract in reaction to humidity in the air. This technique, already in use as early as the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) in building construction, was perfected and reached its peak during the early Qing period when it was implemented on both furnishings and buildings. It is also interesting to note that the dimensions of the present compound cabinet, being over three meters in height and two meters in width, indicates its use in a hall or chamber of considerable height.

Imperial  Significance

As mentioned  earlier, items of Imperial furnishing were  treasured artefacts that served a dual purpose: that of being a beautiful object made for appreciation and also having the utilitarian function in its setting. They reflect the sumptuous nature of Imperial architecture and interiors. The placing of every piece of furniture and its accompanying furnishings was carried out with strict adherence to courtly rules and regulations, much of it based on complex traditional Chinese geomantic principles. [17] Similar to ^screens  that served as space dividers in the private quarters of the emperor, Cabinets also functioned as free-standing pictorial artefacts that occupied and divided a three-dimensional space. ^[18]  Hay in his examination of Imperial furnishing mentions how they had the power to provide a magnificent pictorial illusion and as such take on the function of ' object landscapes'. ^[19]  He also notes that objects 'had an inbuilt capacity, not only to affect beholders directly, but also to influence them indirectly through their contributions to the scenic arrangements within which they found a place'. [20 ^] 

We can only speculate how and where the present cabinet was deployed. Given that the Yangxin Dian cabinet was made for the private residence of the Yongzheng Emperor, it is likely that the present cabinet was also for personal use. The theme of sixteen dragons chasing flaming pearls is a personal one that would have resonated with the emperor's self image as a seeker of wisdom and his wish for harmony and balance in his rule over the Empire. What is also certain is that the cabinet's manufacture set new standards that became the hallmark of High Qing court art. 

Footnotes: [1] Hay, Jonathan (2010). Sensuous Surfaces. The Decorative Object in Early Modern China (Chicago: Chicago University Press), 21.
[2] Hay (2010), 58.
[3] Hay (2010), 35-6.
[4] Ko, Dorothy (2017). The Social Life of Inkstones (Seattle and London: Washington University Press), 24-30.
[5] Ko (2017), 20.
[6] Lam, Peter (2021). 'Imperial Kangxi Porcelain from the Dawentang Collection,' Arts of Asia Spring accessed https://artsofasia.com/imperial-kangxi-porcelain-from-the-dawentang-collection-2. See also Ko (2017), 20-21, on the biography of Liu.
[7] Lam (2021).
[8] Lam (2021).
[9] Lam (2021).
[10] Hay (2010), 155.
[11] Nickel, Helmut (1991). 'The Dragon and Pearl' Metropolitan Museum Journal 26, 139.
[12] Ko (2017), 25.
[13] Ko (2017), 28.
[14] Krahl, Regina (2005). 'The Kangxi Emperor: Horseman, Man of Letters, Man of Science,' in Evelyn S. Rawsky and Jessica Rawson eds., China: The Three Emperors 1662-1795 (London: Royal Academy of Arts), 210-214.
[15] Zhou Mo Zhou Mo (2004). 'Ming Qing jiaju de caizhi yanjiu yu jianding – zitan Research and identification of the material of Ming and Qing furniture - red sandalwood,' Shoucangjia , part 2, 53-54.
[16] Zhang Xiaoming (2009). Chinese Furniture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 24.
[17] Rawski, Evelyn S. and Rawson, Jessica (eds.) (2005). China: The Three Emperors 1662-1795 (London: Royal Academy of Arts), 391.
[18] Wu Hung (1996). The Double Screen (London: Reaktion Books),16.
[19] Hay (2010), 309.
[20] Hay (2010), 341.

Seeking balance and harmony: an imperial red sandalwood double-top cabinet with cloud and dragon patterns made in the early Qing Dynasty
Dr. Xue Haopei

Introduction

Qing Dynasty furniture was a practical work of art, designed to appeal to the senses through display and practical functionality. They are both long-term possessions and luxury goods. They not only indicate the status of the owner, but also provide an opportunity for them to construct a world view based on their own identity. What art historians call the “politics of taste,” we witness unprecedented demand from the late 17th century, which inspired ingenious and highly decorative designs that fully exploited the ingenuity and skill of craftsmen. In the palace environment, the function and meaning of long objects were closely related to the emperor's aesthetic taste and needs. Royal taste introduces a new vocabulary of practicality and gorgeousness to interior design: the design not only has excellent functional considerations, and can meet various needs such as office and leisure in the palace; it is also the realization of a concept, reflecting the emperor's rule over the world. ambition.

The panel of this rosewood double-top cabinet is decorated with a high-relief and profound pattern of clouds and dragons playing with beads, demonstrating the superb craftsmanship created by the royal order. This huge structure is nearly one foot high and more than six feet wide. Although there have been mistakes in the upper and lower parts, it is now so complete that it is a celebration. This type of monumental structure decorated with dragon patterns was intended to enhance royal authority and could only be designed and produced by the most skilled craftsmen of the Ministry of Interior's Woodworking Office.

This cabinet is decorated with eight vigorous bead-playing dragons, filled with clouds, waves, sea water and cliffs, and punctuated by eight auspicious symbols and wishful flowers. This may remind people of some works from the 18th century. In the back bedroom of the west second room of Yangxin Hall, there is a set of three cabinets in one red sandalwood double-top box. The structure is slightly different, the decoration is similar, and it is also decorated with dragons piercing the clouds and playing with pearls. See "The Complete Collection of Ming and Qing Furniture from the Collection of Cultural Relics in the Palace Museum". (2)》, Hong Kong, 2002, No. 249 (Figure 1). The size of this cabinet was specially made for the Yangxin Hall, the main residence of Emperor Yongzheng (r. 1722-1735) and later used by his successors. Although the Yunlong cabinet in Yangxin Hall is also a product of the woodwork of the Manufacturing Office, the artistic styles and preferences of different periods can be clearly seen from the dragon pattern style and composition focus. This item may be earlier than the Yangxin Hall example, and also earlier than other known imperial rosewood furniture with dragon patterns, such as the rosewood throne of Emperor Qianlong (reigned 1736-1795), sold at Sotheby's Hong Kong on October 8, 2009 Than, lot 1645 (Fig. 2). In fact, this lot may be an important early artistic attempt at Qing palace furniture, serving as a blueprint for later rosewood furniture. The dragon pattern decorated on the top of this chest is obviously influenced by the works of Liu Yuan (ca. 1641-ca. 1691) during the Kangxi period. His interpretation of the dragon pattern is well-known on many famous vessels. It will be explained in detail below.

After a brief introduction to the historical background and cultural atmosphere of royal furniture production in the early Qing Dynasty, we will study Liu Yuan's influence and inheritance on dragon pattern design, especially the symbolic meaning of the dragon pattern with opera beads, as well as the use of red sandalwood utensils and their craftsmanship The importance of the cabinet, and even the important position of the standing cabinet in the palace furnishings.

Historical background and Liu Yuan

Art historian Qiao Xun pointed out that the emperor needed to use special decorations to always remind him that he owned the fruits of the labor and talents of his subjects. During the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1661-1722), he created a unique style of Qing royal art and decoration based on the Ming system and incorporating Manchu aesthetics. The Royal Workshop, located in the Forbidden City, specialized in producing handicrafts of the emperor's specific taste and was the first of its kind in the Qing Dynasty. In this setting, we see a team of overseers or "tastemakers" who ensured that local craftsmen employed by the Qing court, especially those from furniture and jade workshops in Guangdong and Suzhou, strictly adhered to royal instructions and commands.

Liu Yuan had a profound influence on the artistic design and creation of the inner court during the Kangxi period. From the biography in "Manuscript of Qing History", we know that he was born in a family of Han army bannermen in Xiangfu, Henan Province. He was an accomplished artist, an accomplished painter and calligrapher, a designer of imperial porcelain, a maker of imperial inks and seals, and a sculptor of inkstones, woodware, and lacquerware. Gao Yanyi describes him as a key figure in the development of the imperial style of the Qing Dynasty, which reflected the Kangxi Emperor's material claims and personal tastes, as well as the skills of the craftsmen under his rule.

Liu Yuan began his art creation in Suzhou, where there were many professional workshops and master craftsmen from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Later, he became the head of the official and criminal department, serving the inner court and supervising the Wuhu and Jiujiang passes. Around 1679, he was dismissed from his post at the Wuhu Customs in Anhui Province and returned to Beijing, where he served in the inner court ever since. Over the course of his career, Liu Yuan proposed hundreds of porcelain designs, incorporating his own innovative ideas, surpassing those of his predecessors. Lin Yeqiang pointed out that Liu Yuan began designing porcelain for the Jingdezhen Royal Kiln Factory around 1680. At that time, the royal family sent four pottery supervisors to supervise a large-scale porcelain production. This firing lasted until 1688. At that time, Liu Yuan's status as a master designer had been confirmed. Traditionally considered to be the work of Zang Yingxuan when he was supervising pottery in 1681, it was actually Liu Yuan's handiwork.

One of Liu Yuan's major contributions to early Qing design was the dragon pattern. There is a Kangxi blue vase in the Palace Museum. It is painted with two rising dragons, walking like human figures. The momentum fills the whole vase, rather than just floating on the surface. This is a typical design of Liu Yuan (Figure 3). Liu Yuan was inspired by Chen Rong's (1235-1262) "Nine Dragons" (1244), but made it more vivid and realistic to match the imperial aesthetic of the Qing Dynasty. Although no scholars have attempted to systematically identify all of Liu Yuan's dragon-pattern works, the S-shape of the dragon patterns painted on such porcelain matches the dragon patterns on Liu Yuan's printed works.

The dragon ascends to the sky, enters the water, and swims around the world, symbolizing power and protection. In the context of imperial power, the dragon embodies the authority of the emperor. In art, the dragon on the front has become a symbol of imperial power since the Ming Dynasty, while the image of the dragon piercing the clouds and playing with beads has an earlier history. The image of a dragon chasing and swallowing a fire dragon ball, which represents the celestial light, has been around since the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The earliest example of two dragons playing with beads can be seen in a sword unearthed from a royal tomb in Luoyang, Henan. The sword's head was decorated with this pattern and it can be traced back to 600 AD. Archaeologists believe that the sword may have been made by Chinese craftsmen, but its ring-shaped sword head and scabbard decoration came from the steppe tribes in the Scythian region of Central Asia.

As mentioned before, Liu was a talented craftsman and designer. Among his sculptures, the most famous is the green-duan inkstone he presented to Emperor Kangxi, with his signature and year (1679 AD) on it. This inkstone is of special significance to our discussion. That year, Liu presented the square inkstone as a personal tribute to Emperor Kangxi (Figure 4). The forehead of the inkstone is engraved with two dragons, one old, one young, surrounded by clouds and mist. The figure is vigorous and dramatic, with great tension. Liu's dragons are full of power and vitality. This natural expression is completely opposite to the dragon patterns of later periods, especially those of the Qianlong period. Although the latter are noble, they are somewhat stylized, such as the red sandalwood throne mentioned above. Seen above or on a red lacquered screen in the exhibition at the Royal Academy, see Evelyn Rawski and Rawson, eds., The Golden Age, London, pl. 17 (Fig. 5). The dragon patterns in the Qianlong period were solemn and luxurious, with gorgeous and complex backgrounds and great visual impact. Their shapes had developed from the agile and slender ones in the early Qing Dynasty to a more muscular image.

This square inkstone is carved with two dragons chasing three pieces of gold. The two dragons are muscular, with their horns folded back and their scales and claws flying. Their bodies are strong and turned over to form an S-shaped curve. They are walking through thick clouds and stormy waves, which is lifelike. The carvings are rich in layers, and the knife is deep and flexible, coming out layer by layer from the inside to the surface. This is exactly what we saw on the Kangxi porcelain vase mentioned above, where the flat surface of the porcelain was cleverly transformed into three-dimensional space through Liu's ingenious design. The dragon pattern carved on this red sandalwood cabinet is also carved with the same technique. The square jaw of the dragon's face is highlighted from the front or four-thirds side. The dragon's body twists and moves vigorously, passing through the clouds and seas, transforming the two-dimensional plane into a three-dimensional space.

For another typical dragon pattern work by Liu, you can refer to the "Long De" ink collected by the Palace Museum in Beijing (Figure 6). The ink stencils are printed up and down, with two golden dragon patterns, one large and one small. The head and claws of the larger one occupy the upper part of the ink strip, and the body snakes around the edge and back of the ink strip. The smaller one is playing in the lower right corner. There is a gold-painted fire dragon ball between the two dragons and an east pearl embedded in it. This piece of royal ink is not large in size, but the dragon pattern is three-dimensional and vivid, which is impressive.

From this we can see the characteristics of Liu Yuan's dragon pattern on the dragon tattoo on this cabinet. The dragon travels through the complicated and exquisite cloud waves, showing its unique spirit and power. In form, style and craftsmanship they express a naturalism that is consistent with the more traditional and classic representations of dragons in Chinese art. Whether we are looking at a green dragon or a baby dragon, a dragon roaring at us or a writhing dragon, they display an agile, free, and fluid form that is no different from what is seen in Liu's works. There are sixteen dragons on this top cabinet. Sixteen is also an auspicious number, symbolizing the harmony and perfect balance of heaven and earth. The dragon represents the emperor, the dragon beads symbolize wisdom and truth, and the dragon's behavior with the beads throughout the scene represents the pursuit of knowledge and heavenly principles in a perfectly balanced universe. This resonates with the pursuits of Emperor Kangxi, who himself was a man passionate about knowledge and learning. Emperor Kangxi was not only a scholar, but also deeply interested in science and the way the universe worked. The universe or the balance of the universe had for him not only a ritual importance but a matter of perfect principle. Liu named the inkstone "Longguang" and "Longde" respectively, referencing "light" and "virtue", two moral codes that Kangxi pursued during his reign. Light and openness symbolize the basic qualities of virtue, wisdom and moral integrity. Virtue is the essential concept of virtue and moral quality. Together, these two embody the importance of moral behavior and justice, making the world under the emperor's rule balanced and harmonious. It was clear to both the maker and the viewer, and of course to the Kangxi Emperor himself, that the dragon pattern on this cabinet was closely tied to these moral principles.

Materials and workmanship

This cabinet is made of rare rosewood and can only be used by highly accomplished royal craftsmen. Historically, red sandalwood mainly grew in South India and Southeast Asia, with a small amount growing in southern provinces such as Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiangxi in China. Zhou Mo pointed out in his study of red sandalwood and Chinese furniture that the Qing Dynasty court used two kinds of red sandalwood. One is small-leaf red sandalwood (pterocarpus santalinus), which has a light floral fragrance and turns into deep red-purple or purple-black over time. , smaller in size when mature. The other is large-leaf rosewood (dalbergia luovelii), which is larger in size, has a lighter aroma, and its color will turn into purple-black similar to the former. Both kinds of rosewood are favored by people for their jade-like delicate texture, fine grain and bright luster, and they spend a lot of money to get them. During the Qianlong period, nearly 300,000 kilograms of red sandalwood were used in the manufacturing office. However, red sandalwood has a long growth cycle, is scarce in quantity, and is in great demand. In the early 18th century, red sandalwood almost disappeared from China, and most of it had to be imported from overseas.

The woodwork in the manufacturing office strictly followed the emperor's taste, preferring large and solid furniture, which not only reflected the majesty of the emperor, but also demonstrated the superb skills of the royal workshop. This style was widely used in furniture and buildings. In summary, the royal utensils of the Qing Dynasty were grander and more intricately decorated than those of the previous dynasties. It is worth noting that different woods are rarely mixed and are not painted to highlight their natural beauty. Zhang Xiaoming pointed out that imperial furniture makes good use of different carving techniques, and four-fifths of the surface of each piece is covered with exquisite carvings. Furniture components are mostly connected using a mortise and tenon structure, without the need for any nails or glue. Mortise and tenon technology has been used in construction as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 BC), and this type of large furniture was widely used in the early Qing Dynasty and was probably placed in a fairly high hall or room.

Royal significance

As mentioned earlier, imperial furniture is a cherished work of art because it is both beautiful and functional, reflecting the luxurious nature of royal architecture and interiors. Every piece of furniture and accessories is placed strictly in accordance with palace rules, much of it based on complex traditional Chinese Feng Shui principles. Cabinets, as upright works of art, are similar to the screens in the dormitory, and play a role in dividing and shielding the space. When Qiao Xun studied imperial furniture, he proposed that such furniture was engraved with magnificent pictures and therefore had the aesthetic function of "object landscape". He also noted that objects "have an internalized power to influence not only those who observe them directly, but also indirectly through their landscape arrangement."

Later generations can only speculate on how and where the existing cabinets were arranged. Considering that the cabinets in the Yangxin Hall were built for Yongzheng's bedroom, it is very likely that this top cabinet was also for the emperor's personal use. The theme of Sixteen Dragons Chasing the Pearl reflects the emperor's pursuit of wisdom and his desire to achieve harmony and balance in governing the country. There is no doubt that this top box set a new standard and became a milestone in royal art during the prosperous ages of Kangxi and Qianlong.

[1] Qiao Xun (2010), "The Charming Surface: Playful Objects in the Ming and Qing Dynasties" (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), page 21.
[2] Qiao Xun (2010), page 58.
[3] Qiao Xun (2010), pp. 35-6.
[4] Gao Yanyi (2017), "The History of Inkstones: Craftsmen and Scholars in Early Qing Society" (Seattle and London: Washington Press), pp. 24-30.
[5] Gao Yanyi (2017), page 20.
[6] Lin Yeqiang, "Dawentang Kangxi Imperial Porcelain", "Asian Art", Spring Journal, website, https://artsofasia.com/imperial-kangxi-porcelain-from-the-dawentang-collection-2. See also Gao Yanyi (2017), pp. 20-21, Life of Liu Yuan.
[7] Lin Yeqiang (2021).
[8] Lin Yeqiang (2021).
[9] Lin Yeqiang (2021).
[10] Qiao Xun (2010), page 155.
[11] Nickel, Helmut (1991), "The Dragon and Pearl", "The Metropolitan Museum Magazine" Issue 26, Page 139.
[12] Gao Yanyi (2017), page 25.
[13] Gao Yanyi (2017), page 28.
[14] Kang Ruijun (2005), ＜The Kangxi Emperor: Horseman, Man of Letters, Man of Science＞, collected in Evelyn S. Rawsky and Rosen (2005), "The Golden Age" (London: Royal Academy of Arts), Pages 210-214.
[15] Zhou Mo (2004), "Research and Identification of Materials for Ming and Qing Furniture - Red Sandalwood", pp. 53-54.
[16] Zhang Xiaoming (2009), "Chinese Furniture" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), page 24.
[17] Evelyn S. Rawsky and Rawson (eds. 2005), "The Golden Age" (London: Royal Academy of Arts), p. 391.
[18] Wu Hong (1996), "Re-Screen: Media and Representation in Chinese Painting" (London: Reaktion Books), page 16.
[19] Qiao Xun (2010), page 309.
[20] Qiao Xun (2010), page 341.

Sotheby's. Important Chinese Art, Hong Kong, 9 October 2023