Artisans who wish to excel at their craft must first sharpen their tools.” From tools for production and hunting to weapons of killing and attacking, from providing for basic needs to determining the outcome of wars, the sharpness of the blade has been the key of weapons as well as a timeless pursuit of human craftsmanship. Initially, humans used stone to make blades, progressively improving blade-making techniques from hastily smashing to meticulous grinding and polishing. Later, with the mastery of revolutionary alloy technology, human successfully smelted bronze and thus redefined blades. The superior malleability of bronze compared to stone and its ability for mass production in a short amount of time also profoundly transformed the form of weaponry. Following closely, in the flames of countless bronze castings, iron blades were forged into shape and have continued to exert an enduring impact to this day.

The emergence of bronze weapons marked a turning point in the aforementioned process, as it escalated the scale of warfare and its impact and outcomes, embodied the famous quote from Zuozhuan: “The great affairs of a state lie with sacrifice and warfare.” In ancient China, bronze weapons appeared around 1,800 BCE, which was the transition point between the end of the Neolithic period and the formation of early states. Their use thrived during the Shang and Zhou periods, spanning about sixteen hundred years. These weapons not only demonstrated their prowess on the battlefield but also became integrated into the aristocratic ritual system, serving as ceremonial objects symbolizing the owner’s social status and power. Although bronze weapons were later replaced by iron ones, their multifaceted roles in combat, in society and politics, and in ritual activities continue to be passed down to this day.

This exhibition centers around bronze weapons and consists of four sections. The first section, “Sharpening the Blade––Development of Edged Tools,” traces the origin of bronze weapons back to edged tools crafted from polished jade and stone dated to the late Neolithic period. The second section, “Revealing the Sharpness,” and the third section, “Tempering Excellent Bronze,” introduce bronze weapons from the periods of the Shang to the Western Zhou (ca. 1600-771 BCE), and the Spring and Autumn to the Warring States (770-221 BCE), respectively. The fourth section, “Endurance Through Ages,” showcases the iron weapons’ inheritance of bronze weapons and development during their gradual rise in the Qin and Han periods (221 BCE- 220 CE).

Bronze dagger-axe (ge), Late Shang period, ca. 1300-1046 century BCE. Length 26.3cm. Width 7.3cm 5.3cm. Thickness 0.9cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

“Fanjin Zuoze” (Bronze as Model), illustrated catalogue, Qianlong reign (1736-1795). Length 44cm. Width 40cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Sharpening the Blade––Development of Edged Tools

Before mastering the metal smelting technique, humans crafted sharp implements from materials such as stone, bone, and shells. Among these, the most exquisite edged tools were those made from hard stone and meticulously ground. In the prehistoric time, the distinction between weapons and tools was not always clear-cut. The most common stone axes, for example, could be used for both felling trees and attacking adversaries. Archaeologists discovered remnants of arrowheads or other injuries in the skeletal remains of prehistoric humans, suggesting that sharp tools like axes and arrowheads were employed as weapons to harm people. On the other hand, some jade and stone edged tools, with careful material selection and intricate craftsmanship, were possessed by only a few and ultimately became symbols of social status.

Jade axe inlaid with turquoise, Shandong Longshan Culture, ca. 2300-1800 BCE. Length 15cm Width 7cm Thickness 0.9cm Hole diameter 1.1cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Revealing the Sharpness

After entering the Bronze Age, the malleability of bronze superior to stone plus the production capabilities afforded by casting, enabled humans to achieve levels of production that were difficult to attain with polished lithic items. Thinner, finer, and longer bronze weapons gradually replaced the earlier stone ones. The period from Shang to the Western Zhou in Chinese history is when the foundation for the development of bronze weapons was laid. This is also the time when dagger-axes(ge), spears (mao), and halberds(ji) became the basic equipment for soldiers. Simultaneously, military success or failure was crucial to the foundations of governance, and the quality and quantity of weapons naturally came to represent political power. Bronze weapons merged into the tradition of jade weapons, becoming ceremonial objects signifying social status.

Bronze shaft-hole axe (yue) head with deity design, Early Western Zhou period, ca. 1046-977 century. Length 21.3cm Width 16.5cm Thickness 0.5cm Hole diameter 4.1cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Jade archer’s ring (she) Late Shang dynasty to Western Zhou dynasty, ca. 1300-771 BCE. Length 4cm Width 3.4cm Thickness 2.8cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Tempering Excellent Bronze

The periods of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States, characterized by frequent warfare, marked the heyday of bronze weapon development. With the maturation of bronze casting techniques, weapons like dagger-axes, spears, and halberds evolved to their utmost in pursuit of lethality. Meanwhile, in response to the rise of various forms of warfare, different types of weapons emerged. First, bronze swords joined the ranks of dagger-axes, spears and halberds alongside the emergence of horsemen and infantry, becoming one member of the fundamental weaponry assemblage. Second, building upon the foundation of the bow, powerful crossbows were developed and became one of the most potent weapons for infantry to counter horseback warriors.

Bronze sword with inlaid turquoise, Late Spring and Autumn to Warring States period, 570-376 BCE. Length 55.6cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Bronze helmet, Later Western Zhou to Spring and Autumn period, Upper Xiajiadian Culture, 877-476 BCE. Length 23.7cm Width 21cm Thickness 18.5cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Bronze dagger-axe (ge) with inscription “Xuan-liu”, Late Spring and Autumn period, ca. 570-476 BCE. Length 14cm Width 7.4cm Hole diameter 2.25cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Endurance Through Ages

From the Warring States period onwards, bronze weapons gradually gave way to iron ones. However, the critical component of the crossbow, the crossbow mechanism, continued to be made from bronze until Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, enduring through the ages. Moreover, the fashion of wearing swords, originating from the Eastern Zhou period, persisted into the Qin and Han periods. Nobles and officials vied to showcase their status by wearing swords. The ritualistic elements and spirit encapsulated in bronze weapons continue to profoundly influence even the Qin and Han periods, which gradually transitioned into the Iron Age.

Bronze crossbow trigger mechanism, Three Kingdom period, State of Wei, mark of Taihe reign 2nd year. Base length 4.2cm Base width 4.3cm Protruding part of base 4cm Overall height 18.8cm Stock height Trigger 7cm Arrow track height 8cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Agate scabbard slide (wei) with dragon design, Middle to late Western Han dynasty, 140 BCE- 8 AD. Length 9.3cm Width 2.6cm Height (with iron) 2.6cm. National Palace Museum © National Palace Museum.

Epilogue: Peace as the Ultimate Martial Greatness

“Martial greatness means confirming achievements and sheathing weapons, thus ‘stop’ and ‘ge-dagger’ form ‘martial.’” -- Xu Shen, Shuowen Jiezi (Explaining Graphs, Analyzing Characters), Class of 戈 (Ge), Eastern Han Dynasty

The character “武” (wǔ) is composed of the radicals “戈” (gē) and “止” (zhǐ). In Shang oracle bone inscription, the graph “止” represented the image of a toe, symbolizing the movement of walking. The graph “戈,” on the other hand, stood for weaponry. Therefore, the original meaning of “武” was to advance with a weapon, meaning the act of going to war.

Later, “止” took on the borrowed meanings of stopping or restraining. King Zhuang of Chu, one of the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period, interpreted the graph “武” as “stopping warfare,” suggesting that true martial virtue lies in halting warfare. He put forth seven virtues of martial greatness: prohibiting violence, storing away weapons, preserving what is great, confirming achievements, bringing repose to the people, harmonizing the multitudes, and expanding wealth. Although not the original meaning of the character “武,” the interpretation of the character seen in the term “止戈為武” that arose from the continuous warfare of the periods of Spring and Autumn and Warring States became the primary understanding of this character in later works such as the Shuowen Jiezi.

Peace as the Ultimate Martial Greatness