BEIJING - To mark the sixtieth anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between France and China by General de Gaulle on 27 January 1964, and in the context of the Franco-Chinese Year of Cultural Tourism, the Palace of Versailles and the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City are hosting an exhibition devoted to exchanges between France and China in the 17th and 18th centuries. It brings together over 200 works, predominantly from the collections of the two museums, and takes a fresh look at a neglected area of history and its blend of science, diplomacy, trading, tastes of an era, know-how, and artistic creation.

Louis XIV, the initiator

The exhibition illustrates the diplomatic policy initiated by Louis XIV to reach out to his contemporary Emperor Kangxi, which was notably characterized by the despatch of French Jesuit fathers to China in 1685, who were admitted to the court in Peking as the King’s mathematicians. This initiative enabled the two countries to forge a relationship based on trust and mutual respect that is often overlooked, and which lasted until the end of the 18th century. This special diplomatic situation and mutual interest prepared the ground for the birth of modern Sinology in France.

A fashion which flourished

At the French court, the appeal of China and Chinese art manifested itself in various ways via four main phenomena: importing Chinese objets d’art ; modifying some types of imported works, notably by adding gilt-bronze mounts to porcelain items, or using lacquered panels on pieces of French furniture; imitating Chinese products, for example by engaging in a frantic race to discover the secret of making porcelain using kaolin; and responding to the powerful influence exerted by Chinese art on French art, especially in the field of the decorative arts.
The exhibition will therefore demonstrate how Chinese art offered French artists and intellectuels a boundless source of inspiration in the fields of painting, objets d’art, interior decor, architecture, garden design, literature, music, and the sciences.
The works assembled in Beijing will also demonstrate more broadly the genuine fascination of the court of Versailles and major French collectors for all things Chinese.

A ground-breaking collaboration and an enhanced exhibition

An initial exhibition was held at the Palace of Versailles in 2014 to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relationships between France and China. The 2024 exhibition in the Forbidden City will be more extensive, thus making it possible to display prestigious acquisitions made by the Palace of Versailles in the last decade. A novel feature of this new exhibition is that it also sets works from Chinese and French collections in counterpoint. This dialogue will reflect the interest which the two countries share for each others’ cultures.

Furthermore, scientific collaboration between the teams at Versailles and the Palace Museum has led to the rediscovery of objects which have not previously been exhibited, and has fostered a better understanding of this early history.

Exhibtion curators: 

- Marie-Laure de Rochebrune, Curator at the Palace of Versailles, with curatorial assistance from art historian Dr Vincent Bastien.
- Guo Fuxiang, Curator at the Palace Museum.

An exhibition in partnership with the Palace Museum.

 

The Forbidden City and the Palace of Versailles: Exchanges between China and France in the 17th and 18th Centuries, Palace Museum, Beijing, 1 April-30 June

 

 

Louis XIV and Kangxi: the birth of a long-lasting relationship between France and China

 

Portrait of Louis XIV surrounded by attributes of the arts and sciences J. Garnier (1632-1705), oil on canvas, circa 1672, Château de Versailles © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

Portrait of the Emperor Kangxi in court dress. Beijing, Palace Museum © The Palace Museum.

 

The view of China held by France and its sovereigns changed significantly during the reign of Louis XIV (1661- 1715). This was a period characterised by particularly enriching mutual discoveries that marked the beginning of a relationship between the two countries which lasted over a hundred years.

In 1688, Louis XIV initiated a very proactive diplomatic and scientific policy to reach out to the Middle Empire and his contemporary Emperor Kangxi. He decided to dispatch French Jesuits to the court in Peking, building on the longstanding presence of European Jesuits in China. He also funded from his Privy Purse an expedition of six French religious as Royal mathematicians. Five of them were admitted to the Emperor’s court, where they succeeded in winning Emperor Kangxi’s trust on the strength of their mathematical, medical and astronomical knowledge, and carried out high-level scientific research. They were, therefore, able to build a long-lasting special relationship between the two kingdoms.

Louis XIV’s hopes were fulfilled by the way in which the Jesuits’ successfully carried out their mission and reported back to Europe about everything they were discovering in China. Thus in 1696, Father Le Comte, one of Louis XIV’s five mathematicians and a correspondent of Abbot Bignon at the Academy of Sciences, published his New Memoirs on the Current State of China in France, which provided new knowledge about the Middle Empire.

The mission of the Jesuits dispatched to China by Louis XIV also had beneficial repercussions throughout the 18th century, notably via the publication of Edifying and Curious Letters, addressed by French and foreign Jesuits to European correspondents from 1702, and the Geographic, Historical, Chronological, Political and Physical Description of the Chinese Empire and Chinese Tartary , penned in 1735 by Father Du Halde.

 

Diplomatic relations between China and France in the 17th-18th centuries

Even before the Jesuits were sent to China by Louis XIV in 1688, the lavish reception laid on by the King in 1686 to celebrate the arrival of ambassadors from the King of Siam marked the beginning of the court’s acute interest in the Far East.

Diplomatic gifts brought for the occasion, including many Chinese artefacts, helped to fuel the court and royal family’s taste for artistic creations from the Middle Empire.

 

 

Jug, gift from the Siamese Embassy, China, circa 1680. Silver with repoussé work, chased and engraved, partially gilded, Château de Versailles © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

 

Gold and silverware account for a significant proportion of the gifts offered to Louis XIV by the ambassadors from Siam. Some fifty items made of different metals (gold, tambaque, silver, etc.) and hailing from a variety of geographical locations (Siam, China, Japan) featured among the gifts from Phra Narai, in addition to some thirty gifts from his minister, Constantine Phaulkon. This jug is one of the items gifted to Louis XIV in 1686. It has miraculously survived and is at present the only known silver gift from the ambassadors of Siam. This work was acquired in 2018 and listed on the register of French National Treasures.

It is a chased and partially gilded silver Chinese jug decorated in relief with flowers and pagodas highlighted with silver-gilt. The decoration on the body features six compartments decorated with repoussé work and chased landscapes with motifs in high relief (people, birds and animals gilded with mercury). The lid, with its pierced knob in the form of a flower, is also gilded and the handle and long spout with its gilded tip are designed to look like wood and bamboo. An escutcheon with the coat of arms of France and the three-crown mark used by royal gold and silversmiths are engraved on the base of the piece. The jug also has inventory numbers from the Garde-Meuble de la Couronne, the Royal Furniture Repository.

This object can be identified as one of the four pieces offered as gifts by Phra Narai himself: Two pairs of chocolate pots with silver covers, made in Japan, i.e. one of the five Japanese silver chocolate pots gifted by Phaulkon. The fact that they were thought to be of Japanese provenance by the Chevalier de Chaumont, who inventoried these gifts, is not surprising as the distinction between China and Japan remained blurred in the 17th century for Europeans.

The jug escaped the mass melting of silverware ordered first by Louis XIV, and subsequently by the revolutionary government in 1793, and was one of the last items sold in Paris in 1797 in the last revolutionary sales.

 

Collecting China

Porcelain, wallpaper, lacquerwork, fabrics, and silk were highly prized by the French court throughout the 18th century. This passion for all things Chinese, known as lachine or lachinage, is evident in the import of Chinese and Japanese works of art (which Europeans frequently could not tell apart) by the French East India Company. They were retailed in Paris by marchandsmerciers, who were both dealers and decorative designers.

This taste for Chinese art developed into a true style phenomenon and adopted various forms: - imitation of Chinese art, - the influence of Chinese art on French art, - the adaptation of oriental materials to French tastes (by adding gold or gilt-bronze mounts to ceramics from the Far East, for example, or repurposing lacquered panels from screens, cabinets or boxes), - but also the creation of an imaginary, peaceful China through the work of ornamental artists and gifted French painters such as François Boucher.

Although French sovereigns in their capacity as protectors of French workshops, artists and artisans, could not openly display their taste for China in the state apartments at Versailles, many Chinese or Chinese-style works of art reflecting their personal tastes found their way into their private apartments and favourite country residences.

 

Sovereigns as collectors of Chinese works of art

 

Vase with blue and white plant and animal motifs, China, late Ming dynasty - early Qing dynasty. Porcelain. Beijing, Palace Museum. © The Palace Museum.

 

This tapered vase known as a ”cornet”, is made from Chinese porcelain with blue and white decoration typical of ceramics produced in the second half of the 17th century. It features a frieze decoration with several horizontal registers: banana leaves, foliated scrolls, and a chimera in a foliage decoration. It bears the hallmarks of the ceramic kilns of Jingdezhen in the late Ming period and early Qing period. Several similar rare examples can be found at Versailles in the collection of the Grand Dauphin, Louis XIV’s son.

 

When marchands-merciers modified Chinese works

 

Perfume fountain, China, Jingdezhen, early Qianlong era (1736-1795). Porcelain with a crackled celadon glaze and brown ceramic; gilt-bronze mount. Paris, circa 1743, Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin.

 

This vase made from “porcelaine truittée”, a crackle-glazed porcelain, sits on an opulent gilt-bronze base in a distinctive rocaille style. A swan with its wings unfurled emerges from the reeds and foliated scrolls of the base, and its beak functions as a tap. The lid is edged with gilt-bronze foliage and topped with a crayfish made from the same metal. The mount transforms this baluster vase into a perfume fountain. The bronzework conjures up the theme of water: shells, reeds, a swan, a crayfish. It was originally part of a Chinese porcelain group, including two dogs and a Chinese porcelain basin, which have now disappeared. In the mid 18th century, it was customary to combine porcelain from the Far East with opulent gilt-bronze mounts. This offered Paris metalworkers an opportunity to showcase their skills and adapt these porcelain pieces to highly refined French tastes. This perfume fountain is currently the only piece of Chinese porcelain which can be clearly identified as having belonged to Louis XV. When he died, according to custom, the object was given to the First Gentleman of the King’s Chamber, the Duc d’Aumont (1709-1782), a major collector of porcelain from China and Japan, as is recorded in the catalogue for the posthumous sale of his effects held in Paris in December 1782.

 

Vase. Porcelain, China, Kangxi era (1662-1722); gilt-bronze mount, Paris, circa 1770. Château de Versailles © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin.

 

This monumental vase was originally a garden stool. Boasting a lavish gilt-bronze mount in a distinctively Greek style, it was acquired at the posthumous sale of the effects of the Duc d’Aumont by the dealer Paillet on behalf of the King, for the sum of 1,699 livres and 19 sols. The giltbronze foliate handles, which begin on the upper part of the body of the vase, feature terminals in the form of lions’ heads with rings in their jaws. The stool sits on a circular gilt-bronze piedouche and is set on a base made of the same material.

 

When French artisans imitate China

 

Punchbowl from the Louis XV service with a “celestial blue” ground and flower and fruit decoration, Manufacture royale de porcelaine de Vincennes, 1753. Soft-paste porcelain. Château de Versailles © RMN-GP (Château de Versailles) © G. Blot.

 

The outside of this punch bowl is decorated with three large reserves containing flowers and fruit. These reserves stand out against a “celestial blue” or turquoise ground which was specially developed for this service in 1753. They are edged with richly gilded floral swags and a very refined sequin frieze. The primary purpose of this gilding is to mask the area where the white ground of the porcelain meets the coloured ground. But it is so opulent and of such high quality that it is also a key feature of this service.

In the 18th century, the term “celestial blue” was an implicit homage to China, which was often dubbed the celestial empire by Europeans. Furthermore, during this period, China was producing stunning monochrome porcelain items with a turquoise glaze that was much sought after by major French collectors, which this coloured ground was probably attempting to imitate. The full service, which was commissioned in 1751, comprised 1,749 pieces in total and was delivered to Louis XV between 1753 and 1755. In 1753, punchbowls were a novelty in French porcelain, and were only found in Chinese and Meissen porcelain. They did not exist in French ceramics or silverware. At the Vincennes porcelain factory, punchbowls were always accompanied by a porcelain mortar for grinding the herbs used to flavour the punch, which was a fashionable beverage in the second half of the 18th century. The 1753 punchbowl and mortar were purchased by Louis XV for the hefty price of 1,000 livres, thus making them the two most expensive items in the service after the soup tureens and terrines.

 

Garniture of three “egg” vases with Chinese decoration, Louis-François Lécot, mount attributed to Jean-ClaudeThomas Chambellan Duplessis (1730-1783). Hard-paste porcelain, Manufacture royale de Sèvres, 1775; chased gilt bronze, Paris, circa 1775-1776. Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin.

 

Marie-Antoinette most likely acquired these vases in late December 1776. This garniture certainly graced the Queen’s private chambers at the Palace of Versailles. The bronzework epitomizes the craft of Duplessis, and the beautifully composed Chinese decoration by Lécot on one side of the large vase reproduces a print published by Jean-Pierre Houël (1735-1813), circa 1745, as the frontispice to the Suite of Chinese Figures after François Boucher.

Two other painted cartels on these vases feature characters from Studies of Different Chinese Figures and the Compilation of Several Chinese Childrens’ Games engraved by Pierre-Charles Canot (1710-1777). Lécot signed his full name on one of the vases, which is highly unusual for the Sèvres factory. The artist has accentured the East Asian features of the figures, and of the costumes, landscape and flowers, by outlining them in gold as if he were attempting to imitate the motifs on Chinese silk. All of the gilded surfaces, which have been meticulously crafted, stand out harmoniously against the plain hard-paste porcelain ground. The Comte de Provence owned a garniture which was identical in every respect, acquired on 24 December 1775.

 

When China inspires decor at Versailles

 

Twelve potsherds, Attributed to Nevers or to Rouen and Delft, Faience, 17th century, Château de Versailles  © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin.

 

These potsherds uncovered during archaeological excavations around the Grand Trianon feature blue and white decoration very similar to Chinese porcelain wares imported during the 17th century, which were a great source of inspiration to European faience factories. They could belong to some of the many broken pots buried in the earth which was dug up to construct the Marble Trianon in 1687 on the ruins of the Porcelain Trianon. This precious château, built by Le Vau in 1670, was inspired by China and the famous porcelain tower in Nankin. Several prints show giant pots with twisted handles designed as planters for flowers in the garden, a detail which is corroborated by the accounts of the Buildings Department of the King’s household, which mention several payments for Nevers faience pots.

 

Chinese cabinet, Merchants bundling, a Jesuit and a mandarin conversing together, Marie Leszczyńska (1703-1768), in collaboration with HenryPhilippe-Bon Coqueret, Jean-Martial Frédou (1710-1795), JeanPhilippe de La Roche, and de Prévost, overseen by Étienne Jeaurat (1699-1789), 1761. Oil on canvas. Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

Chinese cabinet, Slaves getting off a goods boat and several Chinese smoking and drinking tea, Marie Leszczyńska (1703-1768), in collaboration with HenryPhilippe-Bon Coqueret, Jean-Martial Frédou (1710-1795), JeanPhilippe de La Roche, and de Prévost, overseen by Étienne Jeaurat (1699-1789), 1761. Oil on canvas. Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

Chinese cabinet, Chinese bowing to a great lord, Marie Leszczyńska (1703-1768), in collaboration with HenryPhilippe-Bon Coqueret, Jean-Martial Frédou (1710-1795), JeanPhilippe de La Roche, and de Prévost, overseen by Étienne Jeaurat (1699-1789), 1761. Oil on canvas. Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

Chinese cabinet, How to prepare Tea, Marie Leszczyńska (1703-1768), in collaboration with HenryPhilippe-Bon Coqueret, Jean-Martial Frédou (1710-1795), JeanPhilippe de La Roche, and de Prévost, overseen by Étienne Jeaurat (1699-1789), 1761. Oil on canvas. Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

Chinese cabinet, The Nanjing City Fair, Marie Leszczyńska (1703-1768), in collaboration with HenryPhilippe-Bon Coqueret, Jean-Martial Frédou (1710-1795), JeanPhilippe de La Roche, and de Prévost, overseen by Étienne Jeaurat (1699-1789), 1761. Oil on canvas. Château de Versailles. © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

 

Marie Leszczyńska’s first Chinese cabinet at Versailles was installed in 1747 in the Queen’s private chambers. It was replaced by a second much more spectacular cabinet in 1761. Madame Campan recalls in her Memoirs that Marie Leszczyńska ”liked painting and thought that she could draw and paint […]. She embarked on four large Chinese paintings to adorn a salon which was decorated with rare porcelain items and very fine laquered marbles”. She received help with this work from painters of the King’s Chamber, and Madame Campan is keen to stress that they carried out the bulk of the work. The paintings, panelling and mirrors from the chamber were bequeathed to her lady-in-waiting, the Comtesse de Noailles, in 1768 and were installed in a specially constructed pavilion in Paris. It was probably when they were moved in the 19th century to the Château de Mouchy that the paintings were made into rectangles and two overdoor paintings disappeared. As was often the case with decorative schemes, the compositions were not wholly new creations, but a combination of several sources, in which the queen was probably closely involved. Fair in the City of Nankin, which stands out from the other panels due to its horizontal format, was designed to decorate the area above a door and, unlike the other panels, depicts a view of a shopping street in this town in mineral hues.

 

A stroll around the Forbidden City

The Emperor of China’s court also had a keen interest in the technological know-how of French artisans and the scientific knowledge introduced by the Jesuits.

Diplomatic gifts, scientific instruments, portraits of Chinese emperors dressed in the French style, and objets d’art showcasing the most innovative processes used by French artists and workshops are among the many works of art in the Palace Museum collections reflecting the two kingdoms’ fruitful interaction and mutual cultural fascination.

This final section of the exhibition highlights the the figure of Henri Léonard Bertin, a French Minister during the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI. This China expert and collector was one of the key players in diplomatic, trade and cultural relations between the two kingdoms and he strove to promote mutual awareness of these two very different cultures.

 

Pocket watch with a portrait, open face, and gold plated copper case 17th century France Beijing, The Palace Museum. © The Palace Museum.

 

This pocket watch was most likely a gift from Louis XIV to Emperor Kangxi, and offers very tangible proof of the relationship between the two sovereigns.

On the back of the gold-plated copper case there is profile portrait of Louis XIV. In the blue-enamelled centre of the dial with its two hands is a motif of three gold fleurs de lys, the symbol of French royalty. When the movement is opened, a pierced gold-plated fiveclawed Chinese dragon can be seen on the balance bridge protecting the watch spring. The name of the watchmaker and the place of manufacture are inscribed on the movement: THVRET A PARIS. The black sharkskin case is inlaid with a floral medallion made from gold studs.

 

Silver gilt goniometer, Late 17th century – early 18th century, France. Beijing, The Palace Museum © The Palace Museum.

 

A goniometer is a scientific instrument for measuring angles. It is semi-circular in shape and has an arched disc engraved with angles from 0 to 180° and a large central inset compass bearing the words in French “NORT N Nort / Est E Nort est / SUD Ouest”. The graphometer is also inscribed in French with the words “BUTTERFIELD A PARIS” indicating that the instrument was made in France by Butterfield, a famous Parisian scientific intrument maker. According to Zhang Cheng’s diary entry dated 14 August 1691, the French missionaries Louis Le Comte and Jean de Fontaney (Hong Ruohan) presented scientific instruments which they had brought from Europe to Emperor Kangxi through the intermediary of Zhang: ”a large astronomical ring which displays the hours and minutes of the day at the same time, the height of the sun and the deviation of the needle; a graphometer almost half a foot in diameter, to which is attached a compass with a finely graduated scale.”. These instruments were all made by Butterfield.

 

Black lacquer clock inlaid with copper plaques, 17th century, France. Beijing, The Palace Museum © The Palace Museum.

 

The wooden base of this clock has had several applications of black lacquer and features elaborately curled plant motifs. The external angles of the clock are adorned with chased gilt-bronze female figures in term-style, with swathed legs. The four corners of the corniche are decorated with copper ornaments, and the clock sits on four small feet.

The brass clock face is decorated with foliated scrolls and inlaid with white enamel Roman numerals. On the upper part of the dial are the four characters “Qianlongnianzhi (Made during the Qianlong period)”. Under the dial, in the centre of a group of mythlogical figures, is Eros, the god of Love who reigns over the earth. The two godesses on the left and right are holding a cornucopia and book respectively. This clock, which was made in France, dates from the late Louis XIV period. The movement bears the name of the clockmaker: Baltazar Martinot in Paris. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the inscription “Qianlongnianzhi” was added to reflect the modifications and restoration work carried out during this period. The original tortoiseshell Boulle marquetry, which was very fragile, was replaced with a Chinese lacquer imitation.

 

Head and shoulders portrait of Yin Zhen, Emperor Yongzheng, on a screen, Qing dynasty, Anonymous. Coloured ink and wash on paper .Beijing, The Palace Museum © The Palace Museum.

 

In this painting, Yin Zhen, Emperor Kangxi’s sucessor is wearing a French wig and European clothing which were cleally inflluenced by Louis XIV. His facial features are depicted in a lively and realistic manner, which is very reminiscent of the series “Yongzheng games scenes” in the Palace Museum collections. According to recent research, this painting was influenced by European portraits of the era. This portrait shows Yin Zhen’s unconventional personality and the Qing court’s fascination with European fashions.

 

Plaque depicting the emperor of China, Charles-Éloi Asselin (1743-1804). Hard-paste pocelain and gilded wood. Manufacture royale de Sèvres. Circa 1776. Château de Versailles © Château de Versailles, Dist. RMN © C. Fouin

 

This head and shoulders portrait painted on porcelain depicts Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799) wearing a fur hat topped with a large round pearl. The portrait is framed with a gold band enhanced with Chinese-style motifs, and a fantastical oriental bird on the lower section. The portrait was painted by Asselin based on a watercolour drawing by Brother Panzi, A Jesuit at the court in Peking belonging to Henri-Léonard Bertin. Brother Panzi arrived in China in 1771. He held the post of emperor’s painter at the imperial palace. The drawing, which has now been lost, was made available to artists at the Royal Sèvres factory by Minister Bertin. This plaque, which is one of the twenty-two paintings on porcelain described in the inventory of the private apartments of Louis XVI at Versailles in 1791, was acquired by the sovereign in 1776. The King bought a second plaque for Bertin in 1779.

 

Vase from a pair in the “new Dutch shape”, Charles Nicolas Dodin (1734- 1803), Manufacture royale de Sèvres. Soft-paste porcelain, 1760. Beijing, The Palace Museum © The Palace Museum.

 

This pair of vases is mentioned in the list of gifts offered by King Louis XV and his Minister, Bertin, to Emperor Qianlong. They are indicative of the quality of gifts from the French King in the second half of the 18e century.

 

Teapot with a handle and an enamelled chrysanthemum motif, 1783, France. Beijing, The Palace Museum © The Palace Museum.

 

This teapot was made in the workshop of a Parisian silversmith. The shape was inspired by Chinese designs and was made to commission for Emperor Quianlong. The floral decor features chryanthemums on the main surfaces and is entirely painted in a transluscent enamel glaze. This technique was not known in China at the time. It was made by the enameller Coteau, who signed the piece. The underside of the teapot is covered with white glaze, and a double blue circle in the centre bears the inscription “Made during the Qianlong period” in Chinese characters.

When this object arrived at the Emperor’s court, enamellers drew inspiration from this technique and incorporated it into their new works.