'Power and Protection' at Ashmolean Museum

OXFORD.- Showcasing over a hundred spectacular objects from Morocco to China, Power and Protection is the first major exhibition to explore the supernatural in the art of the Islamic world. Within Islamic societies, people of all backgrounds have engaged in fascinating and sometimes controversial practices such as the casting of horoscopes and the interpretation of omens. Power and Protection includes objects and works of art from the 12th to the 20th centuries which have been used as sources of guidance and protection in both the private sphere and in dramatic events such as battles and royal births. Amongst the displays are dream-books, talismanic clothing and jewel-encrusted amulets. This is an unmissable chance to see works of breathtaking quality and astonishing scale, many of which have never before been seen in public. 

Belief in the supernatural and the practice of divination have held a place in people’s lives across all times and cultures. In Islam, as in all religions, such beliefs and practices have often merged and been integrated into popular religion. Everyday objects and luxury items abound, showing how these practices were used at all levels of society around the Islamic world. The exhibition opens with a gallery of exquisite objects associated with astrology. One of the highlights is the Horoscope of Prince Iskandar (1384–1415), grandson of Timur (or ‘Tamburlaine’). Created in 1411 when the prince was an adult, the horoscope was manipulated to suggest celestial support for Iskandar’s political aims. It is also an extraordinary work of art - with images of planets and signs of the zodiac set in a rich blue background with gold decoration - which demonstrates the skills of the royal workshop of illuminators, gilders, calligraphers and paper-makers.  

The opening section of the exhibition also explores geomancy or ‘the science of sand’ – a technique that interprets marks made in the earth. A particular highlight is an object that can be described as a 13th-century ‘computer’ designed to calculate a person’s fortune using circular dials and sliding arcs which help produce a geomantic reading. Once the dials were turned the geomancer could interpret the alignment of the dots within the instrument and thereby provide answers to the client’s questions, perhaps predicting the sex of an unborn child or discovering the infidelity of a spouse. Dated 1241–2 and signed by Muhammad ibn Khutlukh al-Mawsili, a craftsman who worked in Mosul, Damascus and Cairo, the device is completely unique and there is no evidence of a comparable object from any culture. 

Astrolabe with Lunar Mansions. Signed 'Abd al-Karim al-Misri. Probably Mayyafariqin (Turkey), 625 AH / 1227–8. Brass, inlaid with silver and gold. Diam. c.27.8 cm. Museum of the History of Science, University of Oxford (37148) © By Permission of the Museum of the History of Science

Displaying impressive scale and craftsmanship, this astrolabe is the only one known to include the twenty-eight lunar mansions (manazil al-qamar) in its decoration. These represent the stations of the Moon in its yearly journey around the Earth. Owing to its interaction with the signs of the zodiac and other stars during its transit, the movement of the Moon generated positive or negative influences that were of special significance for astrological predictions. Being the planet that was closest to the Earth, the Moon was considered to have the strongest influence on terrestrial activities and beings.

Ruzname ('Calendar'), Turkey, 1226 AH / 1812. Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 100 x 12.2 cm. Wellcome Library, London (Ottoman Ms.3) © Wellcome Library, London 

This sumptuous scroll contains a series of astronomical tables that can be used to establish correspondences between the lunar (hijri) and the solar (rumi) calendars. The lunar year, based on the cycle or phases of the Moon, is the one generally in use in the Islamic world and is essential to determine key Muslim religious duties. Seasonal and economic activities, however, continued to rely on the solar year, hence the need to align the two.

 Coffee Set with Astrological Decoration. Signed Muhammad Baqir, Iran, early 19th century. Gold, enamelled. Saucer diam. 12.7 cm; bowl diam. 8.2 cm; spoon 13.2 cm. Accepted by HM Government in lieu of Inheritance Tax on the Estate of Basil W. Robinson and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum, 2009. Ashmolean Museum (EA2009.2–4) © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford

Amongst the finest examples of Persian enamel work, this set is decorated with a panegyric extolling the virtues of its recipient, Fath 'Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797–1834). This ruler is compared to the Sun and celebrated as the source of cosmic harmony. The iconographic program complements the astral tone of the poem by combining Chinese and Western zodiacal signs (lid and cup), major constellations (cup), the seven planets (saucer) in addition to the pseudo-planet Jawzahr, 'the dragon'. The choice of an astrological theme for the decoration is especially fitting for Fath 'Ali Shah, often addressed in sources as a new 'Lord of (Auspicious) Conjunctions' (sahib-i qiran). 

The Prophet Idris. From an illustrated copy of the Qisas al-anbiya' ('Stories of the Prophets') by Ishaq ibn Ibrahim al-Nishapuri, Iran, c.1570-80. Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 31.7 x 19.9 cm. The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (CBL Per.231, fols 21b-22a) © The Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin 

The prophet Idris (or Enoch) is mentioned in the Qur'an and described as a righteous and erudite man. As such, he is credited with many inventions ranging from practical activities such as tailoring and writing, to intellectual pursuits, including astronomy and geomancy. Some accounts indicate that the Angel Gabriel was ultimately responsible for initiating Idris to geomantic divination. Undoubtedly, the link between this practice, the messenger of God and prophets enhanced the status of this occult art, implying a degree of divine guidance in its proper execution and use. 

Hidayat al-raml ('Instructions on Sand [Divination]') by Hidayat Allah, India or Iran, 1209 AH / 1794. Coloured inks and gold on paper, 29.3 x 19.5 cm. Wellcome Library, London (Ms.466, fols 30b-31a) © Wellcome Library, London

This manuscript is a late copy of a geomantic manual originally composed for the Mughal Emperor Akbar (r.1556-1605) by Hidayat Allah. Designed as a compendium of geomantic knowledge, it describes the range of questions generally asked during a consultation, the interpretative processes, and the sources consulted to produce its contents. As such, it provides valuable insights into the textual tradition that emerged in support.

 Geomantic Tablet. Signed Muhammad ibn Khutlukh al-Mawsili. Owned by Muhammad al-Muhtasib al-Najjari. Probably Damascus (Syria), 639 AH / 1241-2. Brass alloy, inlaid with silver and gold, 26.8 x 33.6 cm. The British Museum, London (1888,0526.1) © Trustees of the British Museum

This curious object, the only of its kind in existence, offers a mechanical way to determine the patterns of lines and dots that are normally traced manually on the sand for geomantic divination. Such designs can be obtained by moving the slides on the top right corner of the tablet from a closed to an open position following the instructions given above the arches. The dials, which are also used to reveal individual dot-and-line patterns in the small openings above them, not only identify them by name but also indicate their houses or spheres of meaning, for instance 'the house of power and glory', 'the house of illness and disease', and so forth. By combining these with the instructions provided in the larger dial, where degrees of fortune or adversity are marked, a skilled interpreter would be able to produce an answer to any question posed at the beginning of the consultation.

Calligram. Signed Mustafa Edirnavi, Turkey, 1215 AH / 1800–1 . Ink and gold on cream and light blue paper, mounted on board, 28 x 43.5 cm. Purchased with the assistance of Richard de Unger and Adeela Qureshi and the Patrons of the Ashmolean, 2015. Ashmolean Museum (EA2015.12) © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford

According to a legend, 'Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, once had a dream foretelling his death. In it a veiled figure was leading a camel, laden with his corpse, to his final place of burial. Once awake, 'Ali shared the vision with his sons Hasan and Husayn, instructing them not to inquire about the man's identity when the time came. Yet the two sons could not restrain themselves from questioning the identity of the mysterious envoy, only to find out that he was no other than 'Ali himself. This calligram (image made of words) is a fine adaptation of this enigmatic story, which became especially popular in mystical circles.

Yusuf Foretelling Seven Lean Years. From an illustrated copy of Yusuf and Zuleykha by Hamdullah Çelebi, Turkey, 16th–17th century. Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 20.5 x 12.5 cm. The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (CBL T.428, fol.169a) © The Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.

Dictionary for Dream Interpretation, Iran, 17th century or later. Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 29 x 17.5 cm. The British Library, London (Or.5851, fols 79b–80a) ©The British Library Board

Qur'an with Table for Prognostication. Probably Shiraz (Iran), mid- to second half of the 16 century. Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper, 35 x 25 cm. Cambridge University Library (Nn.3.75, fols 297b–298a) © The Syndics of Cambridge University Library

The use of texts to predict the future or decide an action is attested from the beginnings of Islam. As the main source of advice, the Qur'an – the Holy Book of Islam – also offered the primary base for this practice, even though only some approaches came to be accepted. These include a method known as istikhara, which explicitly asks for God's guidance to make a choice. 

Divan by Hafiz. Copied by Sulayman al-Fushanji. Probably Herat (Afghanistan), 855 AH / 1451. Ink, colours, and gold on Chinese paper, 17 x 10 cm. The British Library, London (Add.7759, fol 17a) © The British Library Board

Attested in various traditions, bibliomancy and its different forms, including rhapsodomancy (divination from poems) and sortes (divination by drawing lots or sortilege), have always been based on authoritative texts, including literary ones. In the Islamic tradition, Rumi's Masnavi and Hafiz' Divan enjoyed special popularity. Known as 'the tongue of the unseen', Hafiz' poetic work has been so popular for prognostication in Iran that some modern printed versions also include auguries in relation to specific poems.

'Ali at the Gates of Khaybar and Related Augury'. From the dispersed Fa'lnama ('Book of Omens') of Shah Tahmasp I Safavi (r.1524-76), Qazvin (Iran), mid-1550s-early 1560s. Opaque watercolour and gold on paper, 59.5 x 45 cm. The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (CBL Ms.395) © The Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.

In the 16th century a special category of illustrated texts for book divination known as falnamas, or 'books of omens', emerged reflecting the anxieties inspired by the approaching Islamic millennium in 1591 (AH 1000). These books offered auguries in the form of large and dramatic paintings combined with texts that explained how the illustrations should be interpreted. Echoing practices of fortune-telling with images performed in public places but providing fixed interpretations, these impressive volumes were intended for the elites and designed to be used without a diviner.

Originating from a monumental Falnama made for the Safavid Shah Tahmasp I, a keen practitioner of divinatory arts, this illustration is inspired by 'Ali's exploit during the attack on the oasis of Khaybar near Medina. The famous Muslim historian al-Tabari (d. 923) narrates how Muhammad's cousin was able to lift a massive door with his own hands, making the final capture of the fortress possible. If someone was to randomly open the book and fall on this image, success and relief from all difficulties would be guaranteed, as the facing text indicates.

The exhibition goes on to examine the power of the written word, particularly the Qur’an. A display of stunning ceremonial objects, military equipment and medical tools reveal how the Holy Book of Islam could be used as a protection and cure. This includes a group of Turkish talismanic shirts (16th–18th centuries) entirely covered with Qur’anic passages which were worn for protection in battle or during times of illness; a huge 17th-century battle standard or banner (over three metres tall) from Deccan in India; and an exceptional full set of steel armour (from 18th-century Iran) inscribed with holy verses and decorated with gold inlay. Centre-stage in this gallery are two pages from a monumental 14th-century Qur’an from Egypt illuminated in gold and lapis lazuli, each page measuring a staggering 78 by 48 cm. When it was still intact, the book would have weighed hundreds of pounds, requiring several men to lift it.  

 Bifolio from a Monumental Qur'an, Egypt, c.1370s. Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 74 x 47.5 cm. The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (CBL IS.1628) © The Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin

This impressive double-page was once part of a monumental copy of the Qur'an produced in Mamluk Egypt and probably intended for a charitable foundation, either a mosque or a madrasa (Qur'anic school). The text reproduces the final two chapters, surat al-Falaq ('The Daybreak', Qur. 113) and surat al-Nas ('Mankind', Qur. 114). Known as al-mu'awwidhatan or 'verses seeking refuge', Qur. 113 and 114 were broadly used for protective and curative purposes. The Prophet Muhammad himself is known to have uttered them as ruqya (incantation) to heal himself or his Companions in times of need.

Luma'at al-nuraniyya ('Brilliant Lights') by Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Buni. Possibly North Africa, 16 Dhu'l Qa'da 828 AH / 24 September 1425. Ink and colours on paper, 26 x 17.6 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (MSS300, fols 87b–88a) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust.

The Beautiful Names of God. From a Book of Prayers, Turkey or India, possibly 16th century. Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 12.5 x 8 cm. The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (CBL T.429, fols 1b–2a) © The Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.

Talismanic Shirt, Turkey, 991 AH / 1583. Coloured inks and gold on cotton, 87 x 113 cm. Al Thani Collection © Al Thani Collection.

This striking shirt belongs to a group of fine 16th century talismanic garments produced for high-ranking officials and the ruling elite in Ottoman Turkey. In a famous historical anecdote Hurrem Sultan, wife to Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, urged her husband to wear one of such shirts as it would 'turn aside bullets' and protect him in battle. The texts inscribed on this example amplify the garment's therapeutic properties. In addition to prayers to the Prophet Muhammad, there are also excerpts from the Qasida al-Burda ('Mantle Ode'), known for its curative qualities, and Qur'anic quotes specifically linked to healing (Qur. 12:93). 

 Body Armour (chahar-aine). Signed Luft 'Ali, Iran, 1150 AH / 1737–8. Steel, inlaid with gold. Larger breastplate 27 x 21.5 cm; smaller breastplate 20.7 x 18 cm. Ashmolean Museum (EA1997.176) © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford;

This type of body armour, known as chahar aine(literally 'four mirrors'), was introduced in Iran around the 16th century. Designed to be worn on top of a mail shirt, its parts were buckled around the person's body by means of leather straps. An added protective layer was provided by the Qur'anic verses inscribed on its surface, which include the 'Throne Verse' (Qur. 2:255), surat al-Ikhlas (Qur. 112), and surat al-Saff (Qur. 61:13) in addition to supplications appealing to God's help in times of need.

Miniature Qur'an, Turkey, 1500–50. Ink, gold, and colours on paper, c.6.3 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (QUR425, fols 2b–3a) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust.

The special qualities and high status of the Qur'an made it into the most recurrent source of protection for Muslims. Hence, partial or full copies have also been produced in miniature form over time to be carried around at all times. In the Ottoman world, miniature Qur'ans known as sançak Qur'ans were even hung on banners and carried in battle. This was possibly the case for this finely illuminated octagonal example.

Magico-Medicinal Bowl, Iran, 1066 AH / 1655. Brass, engraved and incised. Diam. 22.3 cm. Presented by Mrs Johnson, 1992. Ashmolean Museum (EA1992.51) © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford.

Swatow' Dish with Qur'anic Passages, China, 17th century. Porcelain, painted in overglaze green and black on opaque glaze. Diam. 36.5 cm. Gift of Gerald Reitlinger, 1978. Ashmolean Museum (EA1978.981) © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford

Magico-Medicinal Cup, Deccan (India), 1014 AH / 1606. Agate, engraved. Diam. 7.8 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (TLS6) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust

The final gallery focuses on the range of personal amulets and talismans created to harness and channel protective and healing powers. Here we have miniature Qur’ans with pages just a couple of centimetres wide which could be worn on a chain or carried in a pocket, as well as contemporary amulets from the shrine of Eyüp in Istanbul. Amulets in the form of jewellery have prayers and symbols engraved into precious stones that have their own specific powers, each combination tailored to an individual’s need. These objects come from countries as diverse as Nigeria, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, India and Indonesia.  

Gemstone from Pendant. Probably Iran, 17th-19th century. Cornelian, engraved, 3.5 x 5.15 cm; Gift of J. B. Elliott, 1859. Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, on loan to the Ashmolean Museum (LI1008.46) © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford

A range of stones was used to fabricate amuletic jewellery, as they were believed to possess specific properties and curative powers. Precious gems like emerald or ruby, for instance, were considered beneficial for eyesight and could be used, powdered, to counteract poisons and cure stomach and liver disorders. Semi-precious stones such as rock crystal or jade, instead, were deemed efficacious against bad dreams and abdominal pain, as recorded by the Tunisian gemmologist Ahmad al-Tifashi (d. 1253). Across the Islamic world, however, cornelian (Arabic: 'aqiq) enjoyed special popularity. Thought to have been the Prophet Muhammad's favourite, cornelian could calm the heart and stop haemorrhages amongst others. 

This heart-shaped gemstone is made of a type of cornelian known as rutabi, which medieval sources believed capable of controlling fear and anger in battle. The minute inscriptions engraved on it reinforce the idea that it may have been used in warfare. They include ya rafi' al-darajat ('O Exalter of Ranks'), ya mujib al-du'uwat ('O Thou Who Answers Prayers'), ya qadi al-hajat ('O Judge of Necessities'), and ya qafi al-muhammat ('O Sufficient in Difficulties') along with 'victory is from God and conquest is near' (Qur. 61:13).

Hilya Combined with the Relics of the Prophet Muhammad, Turkey, 19th century; Ink and gold on paper, 47 x 29.4 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (CAL441) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust.

Central Section from a Banner with dhu'l-fiqar, Turkey, 17th century. Silk and metal thread, 189 x 59.5 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (TXT36) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust.

Finial in the Shape of the 'Hand of Fatima'. Possibly Hyderabad (India), late 18th-early 19th century. Gold on a lac core, rubies, emeralds, diamonds, and pearls, 11.8 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (JLY1923) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust

The 'Seal of Prophethood' (muhr al-nubuwwa). From an Illustrated Prayer Book, Turkey, 1212 AH / 1798; Ink, colours, and gold on paper, 17 x 11 cm. The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (CBL T.463, fols 91b-92a) © The Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin

Hilya. Signed Ibrahim Edhem ibn Ahmed Rifet, Turkey, 1322 AH / 1904-5 . Ink and gold on paper, 32.3 x 25 cm. Nasser D. Khalili Collection, London (CAL463) © Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust

Jimat in Form of a Ship. Signed 'Abdul Wahid ibn al-Haji Muhammad Tahir, Cangking (West Sumatra, Indonesia), 23 Safar 1283 AH / 6 July 1866. Coloured inks on paper backed on cloth, 34 x 42.6 cm. Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford (Ms.Arab.e.58) © The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford

Imam Monawar Hussain, Founder, The Oxford Foundation, says: ‘Power and Protection brings together the most beautiful array of Islamic objects and works of art which illustrate an aspect of the lived experience of many Muslims. In sharing this aspect of the Islamic tradition - one that is common across many different religions - at a time of such misunderstandings about Islam, I am convinced that this exhibition will help to deepen and enrich people’s appreciation of our faith.’ 

Professor Tariq Ramadan, Professor of Contemporary Islamic Studies, St Antony’s College, University of Oxford, says: ‘This exhibition is a great opportunity for anyone who wants to find out more about Islam and Muslims. With an emphasis less on theory and more on Islamic practices, hopes and even superstitions, the exhibiton shows the many creative paths which Muslims follow towards the Oneness of God (Tawhid). In examining these practices and the artworks associated with them, we can gain a deeper historical, cultural and even theological understanding of Muslims as they strive to come back to their source of knowledge and explore the meaning of human destiny. This is about spiritual liberation in all its forms and POWER AND PROTECTION opens that mysterious door.’ 

Dr Xa Sturgis, Director, Ashmolean Museum, says: ‘The Ashmolean’s collections and displays allow for and encourage the exploration of common themes across cultures and time. Power and Protection explores, through a group of extraordinary objects, popular religious practices, familiar within many cultures but given different and revealing emphases within the Islamic world. Now, perhaps more than ever,it is important for museums to draw attention to and increase understanding of world cultures and to demonstrate what we share and how we share it.'

Calligraphic standard in the shape of a falcon. From Golconda, India, 17th-century. Perforated gilt copper, 38 x 20.3 cm © Victoria and Albert Museum, London