Jewellery has been the most prevalent form of ancient goldware across Southeast Asia, of which the most impressive traces of Indonesian civilisation are from Java. The Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection includes a significant portion of gold jewellery from this region dating from the 7th to early 16th century, a period also known as the Classical Period, illustrating Javanese goldsmiths' copious variety and intricate artistry.

The Classical Period is conventionally divided into three phases: Early Classical Period (7th - 9th century), where the political power was based in Central Java; Middle Classical Period (10th - mid 13th century), where the authority shifted to East Java; and Late Classical Period (mid 13th - early 16th century), which is characterised by the Majapahit Empire - one of the greatest of the early Indonesian kingdoms. The Majapahit Empire came to its demise in 1519 with the arrival of Islam, signalling the end of the Classical Period as a whole.

During this period, Javanese goldsmiths were highly esteemed in society, listed among the five main crafts. They produced some of the most unique and intricate gold jewellery, particularly rings. Their skill was highly advanced, creating designs that significantly diverged from their Southeast Asian counterparts, such as rings with auspicious motifs, wire-wrapped rings, rings associated with Hindu-Buddhist iconography, and ear clips.

Lot 1007. A gold seal ring with 'Sri' inscription, From Rabuk, Purbalingga, Central Java, Indonesia, 8th - 10th century; d. 1.6 cm; 24 grams. Estimate: 26,000 - 28,000 HKD. Lot sold: 107,100 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

the oval bezel with Sri inscription, which is associated with Dewi Sri, the goddess of wealth and prosperity.

Literature: Susan Ollemans, 'Ancient Gold Rings from Asia. The Tuyêt Nguyêt Collection’, Arts of Asia, July-August 2017, pl. 4. 

Lot 1038. A gold ring with an inscribed lozenge bezel, Central Java, Indonesia, 9th - 10th century; d. 1.6 cm; 40 grams. Estimate: 35,000 - 40,000 HKD. Lot sold: 352,800 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

The two-tier lozenge-shaped bezel chased with a repetitive stylized script.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection. 

Note: A similar ring in the Wereldmuseum collection is illustrated in the exhibition catalogue, Goud der Goden: uit het oude Java [Gold of the Gods from Ancient Java], Wereldmuseum, Rotterdam, 2014, p. 236.

Provenance: Habsburg-Feldman Geneva, 14th May 1990, lot 139. 

Literature: Susan Ollemans, 'Ancient Gold Rings from Asia. The Tuyêt Nguyêt Collection’, Arts of Asia, July-August 2017, pl. 2.

Lot 1008. A gold ring of Nandi on a lotus, Java, Indonesia, 10th - 15th century; d. 1.5 cm; 32.5 grams. Estimate: 28,000 - 30,000 HKD. Lot sold: 44,100 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

Note: Nandi, which means 'joy' and 'satisfaction' in Sanskrit, is the vahana ('mount' or 'vehicle') of the Hindu god Shiva and the guardian deity of Mount Kailash. He sometimes appears in an anthropomorphic form but is more often depicted as a bull, seated outside most Shaivite temples facing the shrine's main entrance.

Bulls were considered sacred because dairy farming was the most important occupation in early Indian culture. Nandi is also believed to promote fertility; temple visitors may touch sculptures of him for blessings. Him seated also symbolizes meditativeness, one of the greatest virtues in Indian culture, as he sits full of alertness, waiting for Shiva silently and faithfully. The present ring reminds the wearer to be aware of one's presence and existence, along with a sense of calm and peace.

Lot 1036. A gold 'Makara' ear clip, East Java, Indonesia, 13th - 15th century; 3.2 cm; 12.2 grams. Estimate: 9,000 - 12,000 HKD. Lot sold: 21,420  HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

The half-mammal half-fish mythical sea monster Makara is usually depicted with bulging eyes and mouth agape baring teeth. It is a symbol of darkness: opposite to Kala, the sun element. Both Kala and Makara designs were common on Javanese temples in the Early Classic period.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.  

Lot 1056. A pair of gold ear ornaments, Possibly Java or Indonesian archipelago; 5.7 cm, 34.2 and 34.9 grams. Estimate: 22,000 - 24,000 HKD. Lot sold: 63,000 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

the shape possibly inspired by Javanese double-scroll fertility earring.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection. 

Pyu

In the 8th century, the eastern region of modern-day Myanmar was ruled by the Pyu people, who struck coins with designs inspired by the Arakanese kingdom to the west, such as lot 1061.

Lot 1061. A gold 'coin' pendant, Pyu, 8th - 9th century; 3.5 cm; 12.4 grams. Estimate: 3,500 - 4,000 HKD. Lot sold: 44,100 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.  

Note: The front of the coin depicts a throne adorned with royal diadems; the reverse features the Shrivastava emblem, which represents Sri, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. Within the Shrivastava emblem, a mountain representing the earth and also Shiva, the god of opposing forces, rises from the primordial water below and under the heavens signified by the moon and sun above. The mountain is flanked by a vajra thunderbolt, an emblem of Indra, the god of the heavens, and a shankha conch shell, a symbol associated with Vishnu, the god of creation and preserver of the cosmic system.

The bail suggests it may have also been used as an amulet. The production of coinage largely ceased in the 9th century with the demise of the Pyu. Although Pyu coins were highly standardized in size and weight, it is uncertain if they were used as currency in the contemporary sense or as royally sanctioned bullion due to their scarcity.

Lot 1046. A gold necklace with multi-form beads, Pyu, 9th - 11th century; approx. 60 cm, 63 grams. Estimate: 3,000 - 5,000 HKD. Lot sold: 163.800 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.  

Note: Pyu, present-day Upper Burma, was a group of trade-focused city-states that incidentally imported many cultural ideas from other countries in Southeast Asia. Influenced by India, the Pyu were devout Buddhists who emphasized religious symbolism in the creation of their jewellery. Their use of gold in personal ornaments expressed their belief system and social status. Beads were especially popular among the royal class for their extraordinary variability and freedom of expression, such as the present gold necklace of multi-form beads. The free mix and match in a beaded necklace catered for the needs and preferences of the wearer.

Appearing in different forms and shapes, all beads demonstrate the exceptional workmanship of the Pyu artisans. Spiked beads and graduated beads in particular, illustrate the dexterity of the craftsmen for the high-level skills required. Conch shell beads were considered an auspicious symbol and hence were used extensively in religious ceremonies. The Pyu were also famous for their unique production of dice beads, in which four of the six faces were reserved for decoration and the other lateral two for drilling and stringing. Other forms include six- or eight-sided pumpkin-shaped beads, claws, bells, multi-cones, drums, axes and spheres.

Indonesian Archipelago – The Sumbanese Mamuli

The Sumbanese believed precious metals had a celestial origin. The sun is made of gold, while the moon and stars are of silver. Gold and silver are deposited on Earth when the sun and moon set or shooting stars fall from the sky. Sumbanese regarded ornaments made of gold as a symbol of divine favour. They would commission gold jewellery to be used as ancestral heirlooms, and to ascend the social ladder by displaying these heavenly treasures at celebrations. 

Mamuli, usually made of gold or silver, are among the most important ornaments typically used in the exchange of gifts associated with marriages and alliances. They were worn as ear ornaments when the Sumbanese practised artificial earlobe extension, but they could also be worn as neck pendants.

Mamuli also embodied Sumbanese's dualistic belief in cosmology: heaven and earth, male and female. It takes after the shape of omega (Ω), a fertility symbol representing female genitalia; the animals at the base represent the male aspect. In lot 1027, we have two whimsical monkeys, skilfully constructed with rotatable bodies, movable heads and arms. While in lot 1070, we have water buffaloes and Sumba-native cockatoos.

Sumbanese's mamuli has become so well-known that the omega form is often referred to by its Sumbanese name mamuli across Indonesia.

Lot 1027. A gold 'monkey' mamuli ear ornament or pendant, East Sumba Island, Indonesian archipelago, 19th century; h. 10.2 cm, 101.7 grams. Estimate: 18,000 - 22,000 HKD. Lot sold: 44,100 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

Lot 1070. A gold 'cockatoo' and a 'water buffalo' mamuli ear ornament or pendant, East Sumba Island, Indonesian archipelago, 19th century; h. 6.5 cm; 38.8 and 31 grams. Estimate: 26,000 - 28,000 HKD. Lot sold: 277,200 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

Lot 1026. A gold 'snake' necklace with stone-set eyes, Possibly Flores or Sumba, Indonesian archipelago, 19th century; 48.5 cm; 116.4 grams. Estimate: 35,000 - 40,000 HKD. Lot sold: 201,600 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

Provenance: Habsburg-Feldman Geneva, 14th May 1990, lot 116.

Lot 1030. A gold 'mythical beast' bangle, Possibly Sumatra, Indonesian archipelago, 19th century; d. 6.8 cm; 118.4 grams. Estimate: 35,000 - 40,000 HKD. Lot sold: 163,800 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

India – A Burst of Colours

In the late 16th century, Mughal court goldsmiths ingeniously combined enamelling with the kundan setting technique. This sophisticated art form came to India during the Mughal invasion and has been practised in India ever since. Such lavish ornamentation is evident in a kada bangle and a 'bird' ring in this collection.

In India, the art of enamelling is known as meenakari. The word 'meenakari' means to place paradise onto an object. Jaipur artisans perfected this art form and developed their distinctive style. It is defined by the vivid red colour and the intricate designs enamelled on the back or inner surfaces of ornaments. The enamelled details remain unseen, adding hidden interest that only the wearer knew about.

Lot 1023. A gem-set and enamelled 'Makara' bracelet, kada, Jaipur, North India, 19th century; 6.1 cm, 74.6 grams. Estimate: 5,000 - 8,000 HKD. Lot sold: 113,400 HKD. Courtesy Sotheby's.

Property from the Tuyêt Nguyêt and Stephen Markbreiter Collection.

The kada bangle rendered in the form of two confronting Makara heads with onyx eyes, the exterior set with rubies and diamonds arranged in a floral spray, the gems set in the kundan technique against a green enamel ground, the interior exquisitely decorated with pairs of peacocks within a floral design on an enamelled ground of white picked out in red, green and touches of bright blue.

The inner surface of the kada bangle is exquisitely decorated with pairs of peacocks enamelled in vibrant shades of blue and green, against a floral design picked out in vivid red. While the reverse of the 'bird' ring (lot 1019) enamelled with a peacock in green, white, red and blue, echoing the front design and choice of gems – emerald, diamond and ruby.

These two pieces reveal that meenakari work requires a great deal of attention and precision. The craftsmen have to first engrave a complex design onto a small surface area, chisel off the grooves before filling in the tiny spaces with enamels. Meenakari adds greater artistic value to the piece and has a pragmatic reason behind it. It protects the high-karat gold from abrasion due to frequent skin contact, and gives the jewellery piece the rigidity necessary to keep its form.

Another known characteristic of Indian jewellery is the kundan setting technique. It is a process of setting gemstones with thin sheets of pure gold, or kundan. This sophisticated technique allows precious stones of any size or shape to be set directly into fragile enamelled surfaces.

Indian jewellery is renowned for the luxuriance of their artefacts, combined with designs of great complexity. They, such as the kada bangle, were considered objects of marvel; they were brought overseas and displayed in London at the Great International Exhibitions in the 1850s.

For a similar bangle, see one with a blue-enamelled ground, in the Victoria and Albert Museum collection, accession no. 119-1852 (https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O68463/jewellery-unknown/).